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Whilst coeliac serology and histological assessment are required for the diagnosis of CD, there are no clear biomarkers for the diagnosis of NCGS. The management of both conditions is with a gluten\u2010free diet (GFD), although the duration, as well as strictness of adherence to a GFD in NCGS, is unclear. Adherence to a GFD in CD can also be challenging, with recent developments of noninvasive assessments, although histological assessment via duodenal biopsies remains the gold standard. The management of refractory coeliac disease remains particularly challenging, often requiring specialist input. 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