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However, little is known about how macro\u2010level contextual factors, such as rurality\u2013urbanicity, are related to personality development and well\u2010being change.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>The present study uses data from two large longitudinal studies of U.S. Americans (MIDUS, HRS) to examine whether there are rural\u2013urban differences in levels and changes in the Big Five personality traits and well\u2010being (i.e., psychological well\u2010being, and life satisfaction) in adulthood.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Multilevel models showed that Americans who lived in more rural areas tended to have lower levels of openness, conscientiousness, and psychological well\u2010being, and higher levels of neuroticism. With the exception of psychological well\u2010being (which replicated across MIDUS and HRS), rural\u2013urban differences in personality traits were only evident in the HRS sample. The effect of neuroticism was fully robust to the inclusion of socio\u2010demographic and social network covariates, but other effects were partially robust (i.e., conscientiousness and openness) or were not robust at all (i.e., psychological well\u2010being). In both samples, there were no rural\u2013urban differences in Big Five or well\u2010being <jats:italic>change<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We discuss the implications of these findings for personality and rural health research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12818","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]],"date-time":"2023-02-02T04:03:35Z","timestamp":1675310615000},"page":"73-87","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Rural\u2013urban differences in personality traits and well\u2010being in adulthood"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"92","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5766-6901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivia E.","family":"Atherton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Houston  Houston Texas USA"},{"name":"Department of Medical Social Sciences Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4780-6883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily C.","family":"Willroth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology Washington University in St. Louis  St. Louis Missouri USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3095-4625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eileen K.","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Social Sciences Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1334-4710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Social Sciences Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3748-5059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel K.","family":"Mroczek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Social Sciences Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine  Chicago Illinois USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychology Northwestern University  Evanston Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5909-7167","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marquita W.","family":"Lewis\u2010Thames","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Social Sciences Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/per.721"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","first-page":"419","article-title":"A study on psychological well\u2010being of rural and urban adolescents","volume":"8","author":"Arya T.","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Education and Management Studies"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108264822.017"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000385"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","unstructured":"Aust F. &Barth M.(2020).papaja: Create APA manuscripts with R Markdown.https:\/\/github.com\/crsh\/papaja"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jce.2019.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613498396"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797615627133"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","volume-title":"How healthy are we?: A national study of well\u2010being at midlife","author":"Brim O. 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