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However, intense research efforts to use transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and electrical stimulation (tES) for sleep modulation have not yet delivered evidence\u2010based NIBS treatments in sleep medicine. The main obstacles lie in insufficiently robust stimulation protocols that affect neurophysiological and self\u2010reported sleep parameters, inadequately controlled\u2014and explained\u2014placebo effects, and heterogeneity in patient populations and outcome parameters. Recent technological advances, e.g., transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) and temporal interference stimulation (TIS), make deep brain structures feasible targets. Real\u2010time approaches, e.g., closed\u2010loop auditory stimulation (CLAS), demonstrate efficacious modulation of different sleep oscillations by tuning stimulation to ongoing brain activity. The identification of sleep\u2010regulatory regions and cell types in the cerebral cortex and thalamus provides new specific targets. To turn this neuroscientific progress into therapeutic advancement, conceptual reframing is warranted. Chronic insomnia may not be optimally suited to demonstrate NIBS efficacy due to the mismatch between self\u2010reported symptoms and polysomnographic sleep parameters. More feasible initial approaches could be to (1) modulate specific sleep oscillations to promote specific sleep functions, (2) modify nightmares and traumatic memories with targeted memory reactivation, (3) increase \u2018wake intensity\u2019 in patients with depression to improve daytime fatigue and elevate sleep pressure and (4) disrupt pathological activity in sleep\u2010dependent epilepsies. Effective treatments in these areas of sleep medicine seem in reach but require rigorously designed clinical trials to identify which NIBS strategies bring real benefit in sleep medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.70071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,15]],"date-time":"2025-05-15T04:25:17Z","timestamp":1747283117000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["The Future of Non\u2010Invasive Brain Stimulation in Sleep Medicine"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5535-7221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukas B.","family":"Krone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour University of Oxford  Oxford UK"},{"name":"University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern  Bern Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2970-2746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seo Ho","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School  Boston Massachusetts USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1446-8328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Jaramillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Surrey Sleep Research Centre University of Surrey  Guildford UK"},{"name":"School of Psychology University of Surrey  Guildford UK"},{"name":"UK Dementia Research Institute Centre for Care Research &amp; Technology Imperial College London, London and University of Surrey  Guildford UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4787-2901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ines R.","family":"Violante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences King's College London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.84324"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119820"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-019-0223-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","volume-title":"International Classification of Sleep Disorders","author":"American Academy of Sleep Medicine","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","unstructured":"Aristotle. ca. 350 B.C.E. \u201cOn Sleep and Sleeplessness.\u201d (J. 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