{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T11:01:44Z","timestamp":1792839704342,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Viral Hepatitis"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:p>Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with significant morbidity, mortality and health economic burden. Over 90% of HCV cases in England occur in people who inject drugs (PWID). Current treatments for HCV are effective but do not protect against reinfection. This research characterised HCV infection and reinfection risk in PWID in England using 2011\u20132021 data from the annual, cross\u2010sectional, bio\u2010behavioural survey of PWID, Unlinked Anonymous Monitoring. Risk factors for HCV infection were explored using multivariable logistic regression. Shared frailty models for the force of infection (FOI) were used to estimate the risk of HCV infection throughout injecting career with unmeasured risk variation modelled using gamma\u2010shaped frailty distributions. HCV reinfection rates were derived using the frailty distributions of FOI models fitted to UAM data. Infection rates were highest in the first year of injecting (24 per 100 person\u2010years) but fell to between 5 and 8 infections per 100 person\u2010years subsequently. The estimated average annual risks of HCV primary infection and reinfection were 10.0% and 14.2%, indicating a 42% higher risk of reinfection compared to primary infection. Even those with no a priori risk factors were predicted to have high rates of reinfection if previously infected. These findings support the recognition of primary HCV infection as an independent risk factor for reinfection in PWID and emphasise the importance of reducing high\u2010risk behaviours to prevent HCV reinfection following treatment of primary infection. Public health policies must recognise the importance of preventing reinfection in efforts to reduce HCV infection prevalence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.14052","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T09:25:17Z","timestamp":1737019517000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Heterogeneity in Risk and Implications for Hepatitis C Reinfection in People Who Inject Drugs in England"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9617-6753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryn","family":"Hilton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MPhil Population Health Sciences, Department of Public Health and Primary Care University of Cambridge  Cambridge UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"De Angelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC Biostatistics Unit, School of Clinical Medicine University of Cambridge  Cambridge UK"},{"name":"Blood Safety, Hepatitis, STI and HIV Division UK Health Security Agency  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Holly","family":"Mitchell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blood Safety, Hepatitis, STI and HIV Division UK Health Security Agency  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ross","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Statistics, Modelling and Economics Department UK Health Security Agency  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization \u201cHepatitis C \u201d(2022) https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\u2010room\/fact\u2010sheets\/detail\/hepatitis\u2010c."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","unstructured":"UK Health Security Agency \u201cHepatitis C in England 2023: Working to Eliminate Hepatitis C as a Public Health Problem \u201d(2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1214853"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.13707"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.13835"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kws260"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","unstructured":"R. J.Harris \u201cAnalysis of Serological Surveillance Data: Patterns of Blood\u2010Borne Infection and Heterogeneity in People Who Inject Drugs in School of Mathematics and Statistics \u201d(2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-6-93"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization \u201cGuidelines on Hepatitis B and C Testing \u201d(2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","unstructured":"HIV.gov \u201cHepatitis B & C \u201d(2022) https:\/\/www.hiv.gov\/hiv\u2010basics\/staying\u2010in\u2010hiv\u2010care\/other\u2010related\u2010health\u2010issues\/hepatitis\u2010b\u2010and\u2010c\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spl.2014.02.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization \u201cGlobal Health Sector Strategies on Respectively HIV Viral Hepatitis and Sexually Transmitted Infections for the Period 2022\u20132030 \u201d(2022)."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","unstructured":"UK Health Security Agency \u201cUnlinked Anonymous Monitoring (UAM) Survey of HIV and Viral Hepatitis Among People Who Inject Drugs (PWID) \u201d(2022) https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/people\u2010who\u2010inject\u2010drugs\u2010hiv\u2010and\u2010viral\u2010hepatitis\u2010monitoring."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4097\/kja.19087"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(22)00077-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2019.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz696"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14152"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit306"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17144951"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-019-4635-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(21)00013-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa645"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","volume-title":"Community Engagement: Improving Health and Wellbeing and Reducing Health Inequalities","author":"National Institute for Health and Care Excellence","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","unstructured":"The Hepatitis C TrustCommunity Peer Programme http:\/\/hepctrust.nam.org.uk\/services\/community\u2010peer\u2010programme."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2017.05.040"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz633"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-029538"}],"container-title":["Journal of Viral Hepatitis"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/jvh.14052","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,9]],"date-time":"2025-02-09T20:59:29Z","timestamp":1739134769000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/jvh.14052"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/jvh.14052"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jvh.14052","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1352-0504","1365-2893"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1352-0504","type":"print"},{"value":"1365-2893","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-07-10","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-12-04","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-01-16","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e14052"}}