{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T19:41:48Z","timestamp":1791920508248,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1190,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,10]],"date-time":"2022-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1662768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University Utrecht Open Acess Publishing Funding"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Dystonia is a clinical sign and main feature of many movement disorders in humans as well as veterinary species. It is characterized by sustained or intermittent involuntary muscle contractions causing abnormal (often repetitive) movements, postures, or both. This review discusses the terminology and definition of dystonia, its phenomenology, and its pathophysiology, and provides considerations regarding the diagnosis and treatment of dystonia in dogs and cats. In addition, currently recognized or reported disorders in dogs and cats in which dystonia is a particular or main feature are discussed and comparisons are made between disorders featuring dystonia in humans and animals. We suggest that when describing the phenomenology of dogs and cats with dystonia, if possible the following should be included: activity being performed at onset (e.g., resting or running or exercise-induced), body distribution, duration, responsiveness (subjective), severity, temporal pattern (i.e., paroxysmal or persistent, severity at onset and at later stages), presence or absence of autonomic signs (e.g., salivation), presence or absence of preceding signs (e.g., restlessness), presence or absence of signs after dystonia subsides (e.g., sleepiness), coexistence of other movement disorders, any other neurological manifestations, and possible links to administered medications, intoxications or other associated factors. We also suggest that dystonia be classified based on its etiology as either structural genetic, suspected genetic, reactive, or unknown.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,10]],"date-time":"2022-09-10T04:50:43Z","timestamp":1662785443000},"page":"1872-1881","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Dystonia in veterinary neurology"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7552-216X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koen M.","family":"Santifort","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Evidensia Referral Hospitals , Arnhem,","place":["The Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2547-6673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul J. J.","family":"Mandigers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Evidensia Referral Hospitals , Arnhem,","place":["The Netherlands"]},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University Department of Clinical Sciences, , Utrecht,","place":["The Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16108","article-title":"International veterinary canine dyskinesia task force ECVN consensus statement: terminology and classification","volume":"35","author":"Cerda-Gonzalez","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-003-0236-8","article-title":"The clinical expression of primary dystonia","volume":"250","author":"Albanese","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000114","article-title":"Dystonia: an update on phenomenology, classification, pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"27","author":"Balint","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurol"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra055549","article-title":"Dystonia","volume":"355","author":"Tarsy","year":"2006","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25475","article-title":"Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: a consensus update","volume":"28","author":"Albanese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2016.03.007","article-title":"Natural history of canine paroxysmal movement disorders in Labrador retrievers and Jack Russell terriers","volume":"213","author":"Lowrie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2016.12.017","article-title":"Classification of involuntary movements in dogs: paroxysmal dyskinesias","volume":"220","author":"Lowrie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"2026020304032621200_jvim16532-bib-0008","first-page":"65","article-title":"Dystonia and paroxysmal dyskinesias: under-recognized movement disorders in domestic animals? 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