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Tumour microenvironment comprises not only stromal cells, mainly cancer\u2010associated fibroblasts, but also immune cells of both the innate and adaptive system (tumour\u2010associated macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, and T and B lymphocytes), and endothelial cells. This results in an intricate web of mutual communications regulated by an extensively remodelled extracellular matrix, where the tumour cells are centrally engaged. In this regard, cholangiocarcinoma, in particular the intrahepatic variant, has become the focus of mounting interest in the last years, largely because of the lack of effective therapies despite its rising incidence and high mortality rates worldwide. On the other hand, recent studies in pancreatic cancer, which similarly to cholangiocarcinoma, is highly desmoplastic, have argued against a tumour\u2010promoting function of the tumour microenvironment. In this review, we will discuss recent developments concerning the role of each cellular population and their multifaceted interplay with the malignant biliary epithelial counterpart. We ultimately hope to provide the working knowledge on how their manipulation may lead to a therapeutic gain in cholangiocarcinoma.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,25]],"date-time":"2019-03-25T07:50:23Z","timestamp":1553500223000},"page":"63-78","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":157,"title":["The tumour microenvironment and immune milieu of cholangiocarcinoma"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8538-6317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Fabris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padua Padova Italy"},{"name":"Liver Center and Section of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University New Haven 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