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In white clover, populations show adaptive differentiation in frequencies of cyanogenesis, the ability to produce hydrogen cyanide after tissue damage. This polymorphism arises through independently segregating polymorphisms for the presence\/absence of two required cyanogenic components, cyanogenic glucosides and their hydrolysing enzyme. White clover populations worldwide have evolved a series of recurrent, climate\u2010associated clines, with higher frequencies of cyanogenic plants in warmer locations. These clines have traditionally been hypothesized to reflect a fitness trade\u2010off between chemical defence in herbivore\u2010rich areas (warmer climates) and energetic costs of producing cyanogenic components in areas of low herbivore pressure (cooler climates). Recent observational studies suggest that cyanogenic components may also be beneficial in water\u2010stressed environments. We investigated fitness trade\u2010offs associated with temperature\u2010induced water stress in the cyanogenesis system using manipulative experiments in growth chambers and population surveys across a longitudinal precipitation gradient in the central United States. We find that plants producing cyanogenic glucosides have higher relative fitness in treatments simulating a moderate, persistent drought stress. In water\u2010neutral treatments, there are energetic costs to producing cyanogenic components, but only in treatments with nutrient stress. These fitness trade\u2010offs are consistent with cyanogenesis frequencies in natural populations, where we find clinal variation in the proportion of plants producing cyanogenic glucosides along the precipitation gradient. These results suggest that multiple selective pressures interact to maintain this adaptive polymorphism and that modelling adaptation will require knowledge of environment\u2010specific fitness effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.12666","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,17]],"date-time":"2014-01-17T13:12:40Z","timestamp":1389964360000},"page":"1053-1070","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Aridity shapes cyanogenesis cline evolution in white clover (<i><scp>T<\/scp>rifolium repens <\/i><scp>L<\/scp>.)"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Nicholas J.","family":"Kooyers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis MO 63130 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lily R.","family":"Gage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Carleton College Northfield MN 55057 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amal","family":"Al\u2010Lozi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis MO 63130 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenneth M.","family":"Olsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis MO 63130 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","first-page":"243","volume-title":"Evolution Since Darwin: The First 150 Years","author":"Agrawal AA","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.1974.6"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.1970.36"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1913.0021"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-009-9334-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2745.2009.01591.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.es.16.110185.000553"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","unstructured":"BatesD MaechlerM BolkerB(2011)lme4: Linear mixed\u2010effects models using S4 classes."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.1969.58"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v007.i10"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/265437a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2144\/96206st01"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00385261"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/39.1.89"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00126758"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00288233.1990.10428434"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_18_1","first-page":"71","article-title":"Cyanogenesis in white clover III. 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