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With 1804 samples from 44 sites collected in western Kenya in 2012 and 2013, we performed resistance surface analysis to show that Lake Victoria acts as a barrier to transmission between areas north and south of the Winam Gulf. In addition, Mantel correlograms clearly showed significant correlations between genetic and geographic distance over short distances (less than 70\u2009km). In both cases, we used an identity\u2010by\u2010state measure of relatedness tailored to find highly related individual parasites in order to focus on recent gene flow that is more relevant to disease transmission. To supplement these results, we performed conventional population genetics analyses, including Bayesian clustering methods and spatial ordination techniques. These analyses revealed some differentiation on the basis of geography and elevation and a cluster of genetic similarity in the lowlands north of the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria. Taken as a whole, these results indicate low overall genetic differentiation in the Lake Victoria region, but with some separation of parasite populations north and south of the Winam Gulf that is explained by the presence of the lake as a geographic barrier to gene flow. We recommend similar landscape genetics analyses in future molecular epidemiology studies of vector\u2010borne diseases to extend and contextualize the results of traditional population genetics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.16846","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]],"date-time":"2023-01-16T12:16:13Z","timestamp":1673871373000},"page":"1848-1859","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Implementing landscape genetics in molecular epidemiology to determine drivers of vector\u2010borne disease: A malaria case study"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4917-7272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfred","family":"Hubbard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics University of North Carolina at Charlotte  North Carolina Charlotte USA"},{"name":"Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks (CIPHER) University of North Carolina at Charlotte  Charlotte North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2569-5059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Hemming\u2010Schroeder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Center for Vector\u2010borne Infectious Diseases (CVID) Colorado State University  Fort Collins Colorado USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2640-130X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maxwell Gesuge","family":"Machani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Global Health Research Kenya Medical Research Institute  Kisumu Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5653-5993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaw","family":"Afrane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology University of Ghana Medical School  Accra Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8760-2925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guiyun","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program in Public Health University of California  Irvine California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5631-4709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eugenia","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks (CIPHER) University of North Carolina at Charlotte  Charlotte North Carolina USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences University of North Carolina at Charlotte  Charlotte North Carolina USA"},{"name":"School of Data Science University of North Carolina at Charlotte  Charlotte North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7890-9906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Janies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics University of North Carolina at Charlotte  North Carolina Charlotte USA"},{"name":"Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks (CIPHER) University of North Carolina at Charlotte  Charlotte North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041\u2010210X.12158"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471\u20108278.2000.00014.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.72.249"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467\u2010021\u201023707\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0129202"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4236\/aid.2016.62008"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025601"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1755\u20100998.12509"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","unstructured":"Friedl M. 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