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We investigated whether skin bacterial communities and host mucosome activity contributed to the persistence of seven amphibian species in a once megadiverse Choc\u00f3\u2010Andean community that experienced drastic\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2010associated declines. Across dry and wet seasons, we characterized skin bacterial communities using 16S rRNA metabarcoding and assessed mucosome\u2010mediated inhibition of a local\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    lineage using in\u00a0vitro challenge assays. Host species identity was the strongest predictor of bacterial community composition, while season and reproductive mode, which were strongly associated with habitat use, also contributed to microbiome structure. Host phylogeny was associated with broad\u2010scale bacterial community patterns, whereas\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection status and intensity explained little variation. Putative\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2010inhibitory bacteria were detected in all host species and occurred at greater relative abundance during the dry season and in species with aquatic larvae, but neither their richness nor abundance was associated with\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection or load. Mucosome assays showed little to no inhibition of\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    growth in most species; only\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">\n                      <jats:italic>Pristimantis laticlavius<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:styled-content>\n                    , one of the few species whose abundance increased following the historical\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    epizootic, exhibited slight inhibition. Overall, host identity, seasonality, and habitat\u2010associated reproductive mode, rather than current\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection, were the principal drivers of amphibian skin bacterial community composition. The widespread occurrence of putative\n                    <jats:italic>Bd<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2010inhibitory bacteria and their enrichment in some persistent hosts are consistent with a potential microbiome\u2010mediated response, but limited mucosome activity indicates that the microbiome alone is unlikely to explain host persistence. Integrating host immune traits, pathogen characteristics, and environmental conditions will be necessary to understand long\u2010term host\u2013pathogen coexistence in this threatened amphibian community.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.70586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T06:10:27Z","timestamp":1791612627000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Host and Environmental Factors Outweigh Pathogen in Shaping Skin Microbiome of a Threatened Andean Amphibian Community"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6082-1252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Lansac","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN) CSIC  Madrid Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biodiversity Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biological Sciences Complutense University of Madrid  Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5064-4507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"De la Riva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN) CSIC  Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0638-0238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Mi\u00f1arro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN) CSIC  Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8731-6312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amadeus","family":"Plewnia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Health Ghent Ghent University  Merelbeke Belgium"},{"name":"Biogeography Department Trier University  Trier Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5112-1246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana V.","family":"Longo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Florida  Gainesville Florida USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3085-6681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia A.","family":"Burrowes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN) CSIC  Madrid Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biology University of Puerto Rico  San Juan Puerto Rico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.00010\u201015"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","volume-title":"The Amphibians and Reptiles of Mindo: Life in the Cloudforest","author":"Arteaga 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