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On the basis of these <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\u2010preceding symptoms it has been proposed that <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content> could initiate in the gut, and that the presence of alpha\u2010synuclein aggregates, or Lewy bodies in the enteric nervous system might represent one of the earliest signs of the disease. Following this hypothesis, much research has been focused on the digestive tract to unravel the mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>, with particular attention to the role of alterations in enteric neurotransmission in the pathophysiology of intestinal motility disturbances. There is also evidence suggesting that the development of central nigrostriatal neurodegeneration is associated with the occurrence of gut inflammation, characterized by increments of tissue pro\u2010inflammatory markers and oxidative stress, which might support conditions of bowel neuromotor abnormalities.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>The present review intends to provide an integrated and critical appraisal of the available knowledge on the alterations of enteric neuromuscular pathways regulating gut motor activity both in humans and preclinical models of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>. Moreover, we will discuss the possible involvement of neuro\u2010immune mechanisms in the pathophysiology of aberrant gastrointestinal gut transit and neuromuscular activity in the small and large bowel.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.12933","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]],"date-time":"2016-09-09T18:21:03Z","timestamp":1473445263000},"page":"1781-1791","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Intestinal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: Lessons learned from translational studies and experimental models"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"C.","family":"Pellegrini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Colucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova Padova Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"L.","family":"Antonioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"E.","family":"Barocelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy University of Parma Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"V.","family":"Ballabeni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy University of Parma Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"N.","family":"Bernardini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Blandizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine University of Pisa Pisa Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"W. 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