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In this study, we described an environmental response in the amphibious plant\n                          <jats:italic>Rorippa aquatica<\/jats:italic>\n                          that involves chloroplasts differentiating into epidermal cells upon submergence. This phenomenon has not been previously documented and was named environmentally responsive epidermal chloroplast differentiation (ECD).\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:p>To elucidate the mechanisms underlying ECD, we conducted RNA\u2010sequencing analysis. The results revealed ethylene signaling, hypoxia responses, and light\u2010regulated chloroplast development as key pathways. Physiological experiments showed that ethylene is a central trigger; exogenous ethylene or 1\u2010aminocyclopropane\u20101\u2010carboxylic acid promote ECD, whereas silver nitrate inhibits it. Submergence alone was insufficient to fully induce ECD, with underwater light exposure accelerating chloroplast maturation.<\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:p>\n                          Comparative analysis of phylogenetically distant amphibious species revealed that ECD is not unique to\n                          <jats:italic>R. aquatica<\/jats:italic>\n                          , implying ECD occurs in other species as well, with its extent varying among them. These findings provide new insights on plant acclimation to aquatic environments and highlight the intricate interplay between submergence, ethylene, and light in regulating chloroplast differentiation.\n                        <\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <\/jats:list>\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.70938","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T18:00:23Z","timestamp":1771351223000},"page":"1598-1618","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Chloroplast differentiation in epidermal cells: an environmental response supporting submerged photosynthesis in\n                    <i>Rorippa aquatica<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"250","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7013-1554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dwi Fajar","family":"Sidhiq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4145-1380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuka","family":"Ikematsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"},{"name":"Center for Plant Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7162-7981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaojie","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences  Wuhan Hubei China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1583-0993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomoaki","family":"Sakamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"},{"name":"Center for Plant Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7496-7044","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nozomi","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Plant Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 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Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3371-0469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gen\u2010ichiro","family":"Arimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering Tokyo University of Science  6\u20103\u20101 Nijuku, Katsushika\u2010ku Tokyo 125\u20108585 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1828-0966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masashi","family":"Asahina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences Teikyo University  1\u20101 Toyosatodai Utsunomiya Tochigi 320\u20108551 Japan"},{"name":"Advanced Instrumental Analysis Center Teikyo University  1\u20101 Toyosatodai Utsunomiya Tochigi 320\u20108551 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Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences  Wuhan Hubei China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6796-3675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seisuke","family":"Kimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"},{"name":"Center for Plant Sciences Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo\u2010Motoyama  Kita\u2010Ku Kyoto 603\u20108555 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2024.1517094","article-title":"Editorial: The influence of environmental conditions on chloroplast functioning and development","volume":"15","author":"Adamiec 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