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Both are likely to involve cortical\u2013striatal\u2013thalamo\u2013cortical (CSTC) pathways or their interconnecting brain regions. In recent studies, distinct, separate cortical\u2013striatal pathways have been identified for goal\u2010directed and habitual behavioral activity with important influences from structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, ventral tegmental area, and substantia nigra pars compacta. Determining the specific site of abnormality within these circuits remains an active area of research. At the synaptic level, numerous neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of messages through CSTC pathways, and many have been proposed as potential pathophysiological mechanisms. Which, if any, transmitter is the primary pathological factor in TS and primary CMS remains to be definitively determined.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,31]],"date-time":"2013-10-31T22:27:17Z","timestamp":1383258437000},"page":"22-31","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":74,"title":["Motor control, habits, complex motor stereotypies, and Tourette syndrome"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"1304","author":[{"given":"Harvey S.","family":"Singer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine  Baltimore Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(98)00033-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112851"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14640748108400816"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0097-7403.11.1.120"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","first-page":"631","volume-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology","author":"Singer H.S.","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2004.06.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2009.03.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2007.12.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","first-page":"S188","article-title":"Non\u2010autistic complex motor stereotypies in 40 older children and adolescents: clinical features and longitudinal follow\u2010up","volume":"72","author":"Oakley C.B.","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. 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