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The underlying mechanisms are unclear, and the development of asthma\u2010preventive strategies has been delayed. More comprehensive investigation of the environment\u2010induced immunoregulation is required for better understanding of asthma pathogenesis and prevention. Exposure to air pollution, including particulate matter (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content>), is a risk factor for asthma, thus providing an excellent counterpoint for the farm\u2010effect research. Lack of comparable data, however, complicates interpretation of the existing information. We aimed to explore the immunoregulatory effects of cattle farm dust (protective, Finland) and urban air <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content> (high\u2010risk, China) for the first time using identical research methods.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We stimulated <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PBMC<\/jats:styled-content>s of 4\u2010year\u2010old children (N\u00a0=\u00a018) with farm dust and size\u2010segregated <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content> and assessed the expression of immune receptors <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CD<\/jats:styled-content>80 and <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ILT<\/jats:styled-content>4 on dendritic cells and monocytes as well as cytokine production of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PBMC<\/jats:styled-content>s. Environmental samples were analysed for their composition.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Farm dust increased the percentage of cells expressing <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CD<\/jats:styled-content>80 and the cytokine production of children's immune cells, whereas <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content> inhibited the expression of important receptors and the production of soluble mediators. Although <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content> samples induced parallel immune reactions, the size\u2010fraction determined the strength of the effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our study demonstrates the significance of using the same research framework when disentangling shared and distinctive immune pathways operating in different environments. Observed stimulatory effects of farm dust and inhibitory effects of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PM<\/jats:styled-content> could shape responses towards respiratory pathogens and allergens, and partly explain differences in asthma prevalence between studied environments.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12975","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,30]],"date-time":"2018-08-30T04:23:51Z","timestamp":1535603031000},"page":"815-822","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Integrating farm and air pollution studies in search for immunoregulatory mechanisms operating in protective and high\u2010risk environments"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9541-5871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria\u2010Viola","family":"Martikainen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences University of Eastern Finland  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0805-4380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teemu J.","family":"R\u00f6nkk\u00f6","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences University of Eastern Finland  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bianca","family":"Schaub","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allergy and Pulmonology University Children's Hospital Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital LMU Munich  Munich Germany"},{"name":"Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL)  Munich Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"T\u00e4ubel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Health Unit National Institute for Health and Welfare  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Environment Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5939-812X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gary WK","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Paediatrics Prince of Wales Hospital The Chinese University of Hong Kong  Hong Kong China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University  Guangzhou China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juha","family":"Pekkanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Health Unit National Institute for Health and Welfare  Kuopio Finland"},{"name":"Department of Public Health University of Helsinki  Helsinki Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mika","family":"Komppula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Atmospheric Research Centre of Eastern Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maija\u2010Riitta","family":"Hirvonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences University of Eastern Finland  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2753-0397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pasi I.","family":"Jalava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences University of Eastern Finland  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4442-9090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marjut","family":"Roponen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences University of Eastern Finland  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1007302"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.06.034"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1508749"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","unstructured":"WHO.Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution News release:http:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/news\/releases\/2014\/air-pollution\/en\/. 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