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Early parental bonding (PB) has been linked to attachment and adulthood relationship patterns, possibly impacting the emergence of hikikomori. These outcomes have been connected to early experiences of the parents themselves, suggesting their intergenerational \u2018transmission\u2019; we conducted two online cross\u2010sectional surveys to clarify the above hypothesis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The first survey presents three groups: non\u2010hikikomori adults (C), non\u2010pathological hikikomori (Non\u2010PH), and pathological hikikomori (PH); the second involved parents of individuals categorized according to the abovementioned groups. PB and attachment were evaluated through the parental bonding instrument (PBI) and Relationship Structures\u2010Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR\u2010RS).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PH was associated with lower PBI \u2018Care\u2019, higher \u2018Anxious\u2019 and \u2018Avoidant\u2019 attachment, and the combination of \u2018Affectionless Control\u2019 PB and \u2018Fearful\u2010Avoidant\u2019 attachment. Non\u2010PH was linked to paternal \u2018Neglect\u2019, especially when combined with \u2018Dismissing\u2019 and \u2018Fearful\u2010Avoidant\u2019 attachment.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>A mediation role of attachment\u2010related \u2018Avoidance\u2019 between PB and hikikomori was confirmed. Parents of PH showed higher PBI \u2018Protection\u2019, \u2018Avoidant\u2019 and \u2018Anxious\u2019 attachment, and lower PBI \u2018Care\u2019: They were linked to paternal \u2018Affectionless Control\u2019 and \u2018Fearful\u2010Avoidant\u2019 attachment. Paternal \u2018Neglect\u2019 was overrepresented in parents of Non\u2010PH.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our results suggest that PB and attachment are involved in the appearance of hikikomori. PH may be connected to family history of \u2018Affectionless Control\u2019 and \u2018Fearful\u2010Avoidant\u2019 attachment, whereas Non\u2010PH may be linked to \u2018Neglectful\u2019 parenting, which could promote attachment\u2010related \u2018Avoidance\u2019.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>Specific interventions aimed at enhancing parents' sensitivity and mentalization could reduce the risk and the severity of hikikomori.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.70014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T04:14:42Z","timestamp":1768882482000},"page":"205-214","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Parental bonding and attachment in the hikikomori trajectory"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"80","author":[{"given":"Diana","family":"Corona","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences Kyushu University  Fukuoka Japan"},{"name":"Unit of Clinical Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Neurosciences\/DIMSC Polytechnic University of Marche  Ancona Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Taisei","family":"Kubo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine  Sapporo Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Orsolini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Clinical Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Neurosciences\/DIMSC Polytechnic University of Marche  Ancona Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ryoko","family":"Katsuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences Kyushu University  Fukuoka Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Toshio","family":"Matsushima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences Kyushu University  Fukuoka Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4420-6903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomohiro","family":"Nakao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences Kyushu University  Fukuoka Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Umberto","family":"Volpe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Clinical Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Neurosciences\/DIMSC Polytechnic University of Marche  Ancona Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5169-2930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takahiro A.","family":"Kato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine  Sapporo Japan"},{"name":"Hikikomori Research Lab @ Kyushu &amp; Hokkaido  Fukuoka &amp; Sapporo Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12895"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000929"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","volume-title":"Shakaiteki Hikikomori\u2010Owaranai Shishunki [Social Withdrawal: A Neverending Adolescence]","author":"Saito T","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-011-0411-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12482"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13651501.2020.1820524"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0020764013504560"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","first-page":"1173","article-title":"Pathology seen in French \u201chikikomori","volume":"114","author":"Furuhashi T","year":"2012","journal-title":"Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12368"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.10.019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","first-page":"871","article-title":"Anxiety disorders especially related to Futoko (school refusal) and hikikomori","volume":"64","author":"Watanabe K","year":"2011","journal-title":"Jpn. 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