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A range of studies have focussed on how these macroscopic organisms can evade the immune system and live inside a hostile environment such as the mammalian liver and bile ducts. Recently, micro<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s, a class of short noncoding gene regulators, have been proposed as likely candidates to play roles in this scenario. Micro<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s (mi<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s) are key players in development and pathogenicity and are highly conserved between metazoans: identical mi<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s can be found in flatworms and mammalians. Interestingly, mi<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s are enriched in extracellular vesicles (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EV<\/jats:styled-content>s) which are secreted by most cells. <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EV<\/jats:styled-content>s constitute an important mode of parasite\/host interaction, and recent data illustrate that mi<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s play a vital part. We have demonstrated the presence of mi<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s in the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EV<\/jats:styled-content>s of the trematode species <jats:italic>Dicrocoelium dendriticum<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Fasciola hepatica<\/jats:italic> (Fhe) and identified potential immune\u2010regulatory miRNAs with targets in the host. After our initial identification of miRNAs expressed by <jats:italic>F.\u00a0hepatica<\/jats:italic>, an assembled genome and additional miRNA data became available. This has enabled us to update the known complement of miRNAs in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EV<\/jats:styled-content>s and speculate on potential immune\u2010regulatory functions that we review here.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12399","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,3]],"date-time":"2016-11-03T15:45:11Z","timestamp":1478187911000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["On the presence and immunoregulatory functions of extracellular micro<scp>RNA<\/scp>s in the trematode <i>Fasciola hepatica<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"B.","family":"Fromm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tumor Biology Institute for Cancer Research The Norwegian Radium Hospital Oslo University Hospital  Nydalen Oslo Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"V.","family":"Ovchinnikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human and Animal Genetics The Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics The Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences  Novosibirsk Russian Federation"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"E.","family":"H\u00f8ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Tumor Biology Institute for Cancer Research The Norwegian Radium Hospital Oslo University Hospital  Nydalen Oslo Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Bernal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Bioqu\u00edmica y Biolog\u00eda Molecular Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia  Burjassot Valencia Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Hackenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Departamento de Gen\u00e9tica Universidad de Granada  Granada Spain"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Bioinform\u00e1tica Instituto de Biotecnolog\u00eda Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica  Granada Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Marcilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c1rea de Parasitolog\u00eda Departamento de Farmacia y Tecnologia Farmac\u00e9utica y Parasitolog\u00eda Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia  Burjassot Valencia Spain"},{"name":"Joint Research Unit on Endocrinology, Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics Health Research Institute\u2010La Fe Universitat de Valencia  Valencia Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(11)70294-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2012.03.029"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2478\/s11686-013-0155-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61949-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","volume-title":"Distribution and Impact of Helminth Diseases of Livestock in Developing Countries","author":"Over HJ","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2014.02.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(09)69002-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2014.07.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2005.07.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004962"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Control of foodborne trematode infections. 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