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Pavlovian fear conditioning serves as a powerful model for these mechanisms; however, the precise spatiotemporal neural dynamics underlying fear and extinction learning in humans still remain unclear. Theta oscillations have been implicated in these learning processes, yet their precise relationship with blood\u2010oxygen\u2010level\u2010dependent (BOLD) signals of corresponding brain networks remains poorly understood. This study employed simultaneous electroencephalography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (EEG\u2010fMRI) in fifty healthy humans to investigate the role of frontomedial theta oscillations (4\u20138\u2009Hz) in fear learning. Participants underwent a one\u2010day differential fear conditioning paradigm with concurrent EEG and fMRI recordings. We assumed that individual theta power variations would correspond to distinct activation patterns in the fear and safety networks during fear acquisition and extinction training. To test this hypothesis, we extracted frontomedial theta power across three trial segments (0 to 2\u2009s, 2 to 4\u2009s, 4 to 5.5\u2009s after the onset of conditioned stimuli, CS) and integrated these measures into whole\u2010brain fMRI analyses. Results revealed a significant increase in differential (CS+ vs. CS\u2013) theta power toward the end of the CS presentation during fear acquisition training, aligning with prior findings of theta ramping\u2010up before unconditioned stimulus onset. EEG\u2010driven fMRI analyses during fear acquisition showed distinct theta\u2013BOLD co\u2010activations in cuneal and precuneal cortices and motor areas at 2 to 4\u2009s and 4 to 5.5\u2009s trial segments. Notably, during extinction training, the theta activity of the mid\u2010trial segment (2 to 4\u2009s post\u2010stimulus) was co\u2010activated with the BOLD signal in vmPFC, suggesting a role of theta during extinction in safety memory formation. Our findings support the hypothesis that theta oscillations may contribute to the temporal encoding of threat expectation during fear learning, but also to memory updating through fear response suppression during extinction learning. Interestingly, theta modulation was linked to distinct brain regions in different temporal segments. Critically, our results integrate previous findings from different neuroimaging modalities and extend our understanding of the spatiotemporal neural dynamics underlying fear and extinction learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.70281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T05:09:07Z","timestamp":1774328947000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Multimodal Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Frontomedial Theta and\n                    <scp>BOLD<\/scp>\n                    Signal Reveal Functional Roles in Updating and Suppressing Aversive Memory During Fear Extinction"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4857-3601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arslan","family":"Gabdulkhakov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging and Interindividual Differences Unit, Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo)  Dortmund Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology Ruhr University Bochum  Bochum Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5011-0780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthias F. J.","family":"Sperl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy University of Siegen  Siegen Germany"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy University of Marburg  Marburg Germany"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy University of Giessen  Giessen Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5679-6595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian J.","family":"Merz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology Ruhr University Bochum  Bochum Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5682-5824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura\u2010Isabelle","family":"Klatt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Processing Unit, Department of Ergonomics Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo)  Dortmund Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0653-2385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Fraenz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging and Interindividual Differences Unit, Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo)  Dortmund Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6514-5479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erhan","family":"Gen\u00e7","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimaging and Interindividual Differences Unit, Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo)  Dortmund 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