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Task engagement, strongly linked to attentional focus and arousal, is a critical determinant of NF success. Frontal theta and alpha band oscillations, as well as pupil diameter and skin conductance responses are known to reflect attentional control, cognitive workload and arousal, all of which influence task performance. The present study investigates the relationship between frontal theta and alpha power, pupil diameter and skin conductance with performance during motor imagery NF training. By examining these multimodal physiological markers, we aimed at identifying reliable indicators of cognitive engagement and predictors of NF performance. Our findings indicate that fluctuations in NF performance are systematically associated with distinct psychophysiological changes within individuals, but also globally at a group level. Frontal theta synchronization, alpha desynchronization and pupil diameter were strongly related to NF performance. Notably, alpha desynchronization and pupil diameter emerged as significant predictors of the individual performance level, with stronger frontal alpha desynchronization and increased pupil diameter predicting higher performance. Our results suggest the potential of theta synchronization, alpha desynchronization and pupil diameter as dynamic markers of engagement and performance during NF sessions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.70380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:04:37Z","timestamp":1787029477000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Changes in Frontal Band Power and Pupil Diameter Predict Performance During Motor Imagery Neurofeedback"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0172-4572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agustina","family":"Fragueiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, EMPENN\u2014ERL U 1228  Rennes France"},{"name":"Dipartimento di Psicologia Universit\u00e0 G. d'Annunzio di Chieti\u2010Pescara  Chieti Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Tecnologie Avanzate Biomediche Universit\u00e0 G. d'Annunzio di Chieti\u2010Pescara  Chieti Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ren\u00e9\u2010Paul","family":"Debroize","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, EMPENN\u2014ERL U 1228  Rennes France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9903-7940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claire","family":"Cury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, EMPENN\u2014ERL U 1228  Rennes France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2016.12.050"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.encep.2016.11.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00158"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984\u2010020\u201000686\u20102"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00456"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25351"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2010.04.028"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00273"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhs343"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1790"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.07.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.544"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2012.08.030"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415\u2010019\u201000745\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/107385840200800209"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.03.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.70291"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5003\u201014.2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/10.9.829"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220210159717"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117412"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1741\u20102560\/8\/2\/025004"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2011.09.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118207"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469\u20108749.2011.04043.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000189"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.10.021"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_32_1","volume-title":"Attention and Effort","author":"Kahneman D.","year":"1973"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165\u20100173(98)00056\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_34_1","volume-title":"Multiple Task Performance","author":"Kramer A. 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