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In daily life, we also frequently notice eye contact occurring between other people, even when we are not directly involved. This study investigated whether such\n                    <jats:italic>vicarious eye contact<\/jats:italic>\n                    elicits affect\u2010 and attention\u2010related psychophysiological responses in observers. In two experiments, we measured participants' skin conductance (affective arousal), facial muscle activity (affective valence\/affiliation), and heart rate deceleration (attention orienting) responses while they viewed gaze interactions between two agents. In Experiment 1, participants observed eye contact between two humans, whereas in Experiment 2, participants saw a human and a humanoid robot NAO. We found novel evidence for a\n                    <jats:italic>vicarious eye contact effect<\/jats:italic>\n                    : viewing eye contact between two humans elicited greater affective arousal in observers compared to non\u2010eye contact conditions. Somewhat surprisingly, facial muscle responses indicated increased zygomaticus activity and decreased corrugator activity during vicarious eye contact relative to non\u2010eye contact conditions when participants viewed eye contact between a human and a humanoid robot, but not when viewing eye contact between two humans. In both experiments, vicarious eye contact failed to elicit a greater heart rate deceleration response, suggesting that it lacks the attention\u2010capturing characteristics of dyadic eye contact. We discuss these findings in the context of mind attribution in gaze interactions and argue that using artificial agents as social stimuli can offer valuable insights into the role of mind attribution in social cognition.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.70386","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T05:49:03Z","timestamp":1787636943000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spectator to a Meeting of Minds: Vicarious Eye Contact Elicits Psychophysiological Responses in the Observer"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8918-5050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuli","family":"Linnunsalo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences\/Psychology Tampere University  Tampere Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7585-3775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jari K.","family":"Hietanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Information Processing Laboratory, Faculty of Social Sciences\/Psychology Tampere University  Tampere Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2420110405"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0059312"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2420040202"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2012.742492"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17470919.2014.977403"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2012.11.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker\u2010Asano C. andH.Ishiguro.2011.\u201cEvaluating Facial Displays of Emotion for the Android Robot Geminoid F.\u201d2011 IEEE Workshop on Affective Computational Intelligence (WACI) 1\u20138.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/WACI.2011.5953147.","DOI":"10.1109\/WACI.2011.5953147"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2011.05.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613516147"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469\u20108986.2008.00702.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0005\u20107916(94)90063\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0735\u20107044.107.6.970"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0301\u20100511(94)90032\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022\u20103514.50.2.260"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17470919.2016.1160953"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2016.1188059"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20416695231226059"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2016.08.016"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/156856806779194026"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/107385840200800209"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","first-page":"200","volume-title":"Handbook of Psychophysiology","author":"Dawson M. 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