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Bacillus Calmette\u2013Gu\u00e9rin (BCG) is the only TB vaccine licensed for use in human beings, and is effective in protecting infants and children against severe miliary and meningeal TB. However, BCG's protective efficacy is variable in adults. Novel TB vaccine candidates being developed include whole\u2010cell vaccines (recombinant BCG (rBCG), attenuated <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>, killed <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> or <jats:italic>Mycobacterium vaccae<\/jats:italic>), adjuvanted protein subunit vaccines, viral vector\u2010delivered subunit vaccines, plasmid DNA vaccines, RNA\u2010based vaccines etc. At least 12 novel TB vaccine candidates are now in clinical trials, including killed <jats:italic>M. vaccae<\/jats:italic>, rBCG <jats:italic>\u0394ureC::hly<\/jats:italic>, adjuvanted fusion proteins M72 and H56 and viral vectored MVA85A. Unfortunately, in TB, there are no correlates of vaccine\u2010induced protection, although cell\u2010mediated immune responses such as interferon\u2010gamma (IFN\u2010\u03b3) production are widely used to assess vaccine's immunogenicity. Recent studies suggested that central memory T cells and local secreted IgA correlated with protection against TB disease. Clinical TB vaccine efficacy trials should invest in identifying correlates of protection, and evaluate new TB biomarkers emerging from human and animal studies. Accumulating new knowledge on <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> antigens and immune profiles correlating with protection or disease risk will be of great help in designing next generation of TB vaccines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13245","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,17]],"date-time":"2018-01-17T11:46:12Z","timestamp":1516189572000},"page":"359-368","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":91,"title":["Tuberculosis vaccines: Opportunities and challenges"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8422-4594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingdong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lanzhou Center for Tuberculosis Research and Institute of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences Lanzhou University  Lanzhou China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hazel M.","family":"Dockrell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Infection and Tuberculosis Centre London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom H.M.","family":"Ottenhoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases Leiden University Medical Center  Leiden The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas G.","family":"Evans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccitech  Oxford UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University  Baltimore MD USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)68507-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2010.06.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.2.672-678.2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g4643"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00400-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.17.2086"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000782"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1688"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2016.08.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0602304104"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2016.05.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4906(01)01865-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leroux\u2010RoelsI ForgusS De BoeverF ClementF DemoitieMA MettensP MorisP LedentE Leroux\u2010RoelsG Ofori\u2010AnyinamO;M72 Study Group. 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