{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T08:43:24Z","timestamp":1790844204239,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]],"date-time":"2019-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1575936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Risk Analysis"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Mortality effects of exposure to air pollution and other environmental hazards are often described by the estimated number of \u201cpremature\u201d or \u201cattributable\u201d deaths and the economic value of a reduction in exposure as the product of an estimate of \u201cstatistical lives saved\u201d and a \u201cvalue per statistical life.\u201d These terms can be misleading because the number of deaths advanced by exposure cannot be determined from mortality data alone, whether from epidemiology or randomized trials (it is not statistically identified). The fraction of deaths \u201cattributed\u201d to exposure is conventionally derived as the hazard fraction (<jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic> \u2013 1)\/<jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic>, where <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic> is the relative risk of mortality between high and low exposure levels. The fraction of deaths advanced by exposure (the \u201cetiologic\u201d fraction) can be substantially larger or smaller: it can be as large as one and as small as 1\/<jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic> (\u22480.37) times the hazard fraction (if the association is causal and zero otherwise). Recent literature reveals misunderstanding about these concepts. Total life years lost in a population due to exposure can be estimated but cannot be disaggregated by age or cause of death. Economic valuation of a change in exposure\u2010related mortality risk to a population is not affected by inability to know the fraction of deaths that are etiologic. When individuals facing larger or smaller changes in mortality risk cannot be identified, the mean change in population hazard is sufficient for valuation; otherwise, the economic value can depend on the distribution of risk reductions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.13427","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]],"date-time":"2019-12-10T13:17:57Z","timestamp":1575983877000},"page":"674-695","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Premature Deaths, Statistical Lives, and Years of Life Lost: Identification, Quantification, and Valuation of Mortality Risks"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"James K.","family":"Hammitt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard University (Center for Risk Analysis &amp; Center for Health Decision Science) Boston, MA, USA and Toulouse School of Economics Universit\u00e9 Toulouse Capitole  Toulouse France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4439-0701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Morfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ruhr\u2010Universit\u00e4t Bochum University of Cologne (Institute and Policlinic for Occupational Medicine, Environmental Medicine and Prevention Research)  K\u00f6ln Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9988-1762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jouni T.","family":"Tuomisto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Health and Welfare  Kuopio Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7110-1031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas C.","family":"Erren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cologne (Institute and Policlinic for Occupational Medicine, Environmental Medicine and Prevention Research)  K\u00f6ln Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/rest.90.3.573"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10640-015-9958-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","unstructured":"Anenberg S. Miller J. Henze D. &Minjares R.(2019).A global snapshot of the air pollution\u2010related health impacts of transportation sector emissions in 2010 and 2015. ICCT report Washington D.C. Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/www.theicct.org\/publications\/health-impacts-transport-emissions-2010-2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature22086"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2006.00668.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2013-204492"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004032-199903000-00008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1803222115"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/reep\/req010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","volume-title":"COMEAP: Mortality effects of long\u2010term exposure to particulate air pollution in the UK. A report by the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP)","author":"COMEAP","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0b013e3282fcea65"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199312093292401"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390590935932"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","first-page":"93","article-title":"L'Utilit\u00e9 sociale d'une vie humaine","volume":"6","author":"Dr\u00e8ze J.","year":"1962","journal-title":"Revue Fran\u00e7aise de Recherche Op\u00e9rationelle"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011825824296"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency. (1996).Review of the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter: Policy assessment of scientific and technical information. (OAQPS staff paper EPA\u2010452\\R\u201096\u2010013)."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32225-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1816102116"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199011000-00003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.89.8.1166"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0096340212444873"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2014.11.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a115073"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","first-page":"321","article-title":"Epidemiology, justice, and the probability of causation","volume":"40","author":"Greenland S.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Jurimetrics"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/reep\/rem015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11166-019-09305-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2202\/2152-2812.1009"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11166-007-9015-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11166-015-9217-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","first-page":"635","article-title":"Willingness to pay and willingness to accept: How much can they differ?","volume":"81","author":"Hanemann W. M.","year":"1991","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-015-0690-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-017-0956-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","volume-title":"The green book: Appraisal and evaluation in central government","author":"HM Treasury","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-12-43"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.30.4.407"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_38_1","volume-title":"Health risks of air pollution in Europe: HRAPIE project recommendations for concentration\u2013response functions for cost\u2013benefit analysis of particulate matter, ozone and nitrogen dioxide","author":"HRAPIE","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_39_1","unstructured":"International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1987).Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: An updating of IARC monographs volumes 1 to 42.IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Supplement. World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon France 7: 1\u2013440."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62105-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5858\/arpa.2011-0039-RA"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/260238"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa8850"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/reep\/rem016"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32345-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15371"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61766-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/bca.2018.20"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a121617"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_50_1","first-page":"429","article-title":"Quantifying the burden of disease: The technical basis for disability\u2010adjusted life years","volume":"72","author":"Murray C. J. L.","year":"1994","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-7954-1-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_52_1","volume-title":"Outdoor air pollution: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels","author":"Ostro B.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2014.11.015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1992.9938351"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_55_1","volume-title":"Introduction and methods: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels","author":"Pr\u00fcss\u2010\u00dcst\u00fcn A.","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.2003.10466118"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4780080709"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2531765"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4780100113"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.3214"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_61_1","volume-title":"Modern Epidemiology","author":"Rothman K. J.","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2003.12.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djs034"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr333"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.912"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.72.1.20"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/bca.2017.12"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP298"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1884546"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Health Organization. (2016).Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease.","DOI":"10.17159\/2410-972X\/2016\/v26n2a4"}],"container-title":["Risk Analysis"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Frisa.13427","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/risa.13427","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/risa.13427","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/risa.13427","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]],"date-time":"2023-09-06T15:37:42Z","timestamp":1694014662000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/risa.13427"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/risa.13427"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/risa.13427","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0272-4332","1539-6924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0272-4332","type":"print"},{"value":"1539-6924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2017-06-30","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-09-17","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-12-10","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}