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We developed an approach based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) risk framework to assess the public health risks posed by TCEs. This approach was then applied to reveal temporal and spatial discrepancies in risks, which depend on natural endowments, socioeconomic conditions, and population demographics. High public health risks posed by heatwaves are caused by high exposure and vulnerability, which are primarily influenced by poor living conditions and living alone, together with underlying medical conditions such as mental disorders. The risks can be further magnified when TCEs emerge along with heatwaves, resulting from accumulated effects associated with noncommunicable diseases and vulnerable populations, including children and elderly individuals. Although a reduction in exposure to heatwaves can directly moderate these risks, prioritizing a reduction in exposure while simultaneously mitigating climate hazards and actively protecting people from TCEs, including alleviating vulnerability, is unequivocally necessary to minimize the risks to TCEs. Our findings indicate that highly vulnerable population groups are mostly exposed to TCEs and susceptible to impacts. These impacts exacerbate inequalities, engender environmental injustice, and hinder sustainable development. Efforts to reduce these risks by strengthening the health system and improving dwelling conditions are essential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.70107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T01:14:49Z","timestamp":1757466889000},"page":"3666-3681","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Public Health Risks Under Temporally Compounding Climate Extremes"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"45","author":[{"given":"Kuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Policy and Administration Chongqing University  Chongqing China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoming","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Monash University  Clayton Australia"},{"name":"Northwest Institute of Eco\u2010Environment and Resources Chinese Academy of 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