{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T15:58:13Z","timestamp":1791561493848,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782345600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782345600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Risk Analysis"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Fact\u2010checks have become a popular intervention aimed at tackling misinformation, yet concern has persisted related to the potential for fact\u2010checking to inadvertently amplify false narratives\u2014a phenomenon commonly referred to as a \u201cbackfire effect.\u201d At the same time, recent evidence from research on repeated claims has suggested that there is a risk that fact\u2010checks may also generate misperceptions regarding societal beliefs\u2014or an \u201cillusory consensus\u201d effect. This paper presents findings from an ecologically valid two\u2010wave experimental study that tested whether repeated fact\u2010checking interventions could cause either of these negative outcomes. To further enhance the validity of the design, we draw on quota\u2010balanced samples of participants from the United States, France, and South Africa (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0=\u00a0680), who were presented with a set of true and false posts taken from online discussions regarding the 2024 Summer Olympic Games in Paris, France. Outcome measures focused on personal accuracy judgments (i.e., how accurate participants deemed each claim) and consensus estimates (i.e., whether their fellow citizens would believe each claim). After the Olympics concluded, participants were asked to assess both new and previously reviewed statements. Consistent with prior work, results indicate no evidence of the backfire effect (\u00a0=\u00a00.048). The findings also provide evidence of a small \u201cillusory consensus\u201d effect (\u00a0=\u00a00.125), whereby participants who had previously seen fact\u2010checks were more likely to estimate that the wider population would accept these debunked claims as accurate. Supplementary analyses of true statements reveal that fact\u2010checks produced large, durable improvements in accuracy judgments (\u00a0=\u00a00.71\u20130.91), suggesting that fact\u2010checking was substantially more effective at reinforcing correct beliefs than it was at generating unintended consequences. Item\u2010level analyses further reveal heterogeneity across misinformation narratives, indicating that the specific content of false claims may moderate both the persistence of corrections and consensus distortions. Implications for fact\u2010checking strategies and public perceptions of misinformation, including the need for further studies which incorporate group dynamics, are discussed and\u00a0debated.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.70293","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T05:55:23Z","timestamp":1782453323000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Assessing How Fact\u2010Checks Influence Accuracy and Consensus Judgments: Evidence From the Olympics"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"46","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7769-5993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Morgan","family":"Wack","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication and Media Research (IKMZ) University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9815-6019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinan","family":"Allan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brandon","family":"Boatwright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5389-2688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory","family":"Cranmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-024-01925-3"},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","article-title":"Vaccine\u2010Hesitant People Misperceive the Social Norm of Vaccination","volume":"2","author":"Batteux E.","year":"2023","journal-title":"PNAS Nexus"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2023.101717"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","volume-title":"Combating Fake News in the Digital Age","author":"Burkhardt J. 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J. L.Scheider A. J.vanDeursen andE.vanLaar.2020.The Youth Digital Skills Indicator: Report on the Conceptualisation and Development of the ySKILLS Digital Skills Measure. Technical Report. 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A. E. A.Harris S.Rathje A.Duke andJ. J.Van Bavel.2023. \u201cPartisans Are More Likely to Entrench Their Beliefs in Misinformation When Political Outgroup Members Correct Claims.\u201d Preprint PsyArXiv May 11.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/z4df3.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/z4df3"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomm.2020.581585"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1031(77)90049-X"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_11_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1177\/20563051231177943","article-title":"Influence and Improvisation: Participatory Disinformation During the 2020 US Election","volume":"9","author":"Starbird K.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Social Media+ Society"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jarmac.2020.06.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001131"},{"issue":"25","key":"e_1_2_11_46_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Relationships Between Climate Change Perceptions and Climate Adaptation Actions: Policy Support, Information Seeking, and Behaviour","volume":"171","author":"Valkengoed A. 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S.Spiro andK.Starbird.2025. \u201cLegislating Uncertainty: Election Policies and the Amplification of Misinformation.\u201dPolicy Studies Journal.1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1111\/psj.70054"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650219854600"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ejed.12874"}],"container-title":["Risk Analysis"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/risa.70293","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/risa.70293","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/risa.70293","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T15:45:39Z","timestamp":1791560739000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/risa.70293"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/risa.70293"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/risa.70293","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0272-4332","1539-6924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0272-4332","type":"print"},{"value":"1539-6924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-10-30","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-06-06","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-06-25","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e70293"}}