{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T05:29:39Z","timestamp":1789018179530,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,9]],"date-time":"2015-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1420761600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":8,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sociology Compass"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Several papers have documented the disproportionate representation of African Americans in school discipline and incarceration settings as a result of zero tolerance policies. In 2009, a federal study of the Chicago Public School system found African American boys represented 23 percent of the school age population, 44 percent of students who were suspended, and 61 percent of students who were expelled within the 2007 school year. Twenty years after the implementation of the Anti\u2010Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 and 1988, studies show African Americans comprised a startling 74 percent of those incarcerated for drug offenses despite being only 15 percent of America's drug users. Despite overwhelming evidence that suggests African Americans are adversely affected by zero tolerance policies, African American perceptions of zero tolerance policies remain relatively hidden in the literature. The current review seeks to explore a seemingly bidirectional process that involves how zero tolerance impacts African Americans and how African Americans perceive zero tolerance policies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/soc4.12230","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,9]],"date-time":"2015-01-09T12:58:16Z","timestamp":1420808296000},"page":"14-22","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["The Hidden Side of Zero Tolerance Policies: The African American Perspective"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Charles","family":"Bell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wayne State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","unstructured":"American Psychological Association.Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools?URL:http:\/\/www.apa.org\/pubs\/info\/reports\/zero\u2010tolerance.pdf(Last accessed 26 May2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balfanz Robert VaughanByrnesandJoannaFox.Sent Home and Put Off\u2010track: The Antecedents Disproportionalities and Consequences of Being Suspended in the Ninth Grade. The Center for Civil Rights Remedies. URL:http:\/\/www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu\/resources\/projects\/center\u2010for\u2010civil\u2010rightsremedies\/school\u2010to\u2010prison\u2010folder\/state\u2010reports\/sent\u2010home\u2010and\u2010put\u2010off\u2010track\u2010the\u2010antecedents\u2010disproportionalities\u2010and\u2010consequences\u2010of\u2010beingsuspended\u2010in\u2010the\u2010ninth\u2010grade (Last accessed 1 May2014).","DOI":"10.58464\/2155-5834.1217"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","unstructured":"Beaver Alyssa.2009.Getting a Fix on Cocaine Sentencing Policy: Reforming the Sentencing Scheme of the Anti\u2010Drug Abuse Act of 1986.Fordham L.Rev. 78 2531."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","volume-title":"Body Count: Moral poverty and how to win America's war against crime and drugs","author":"Bennett William","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0042085912454442"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","volume-title":"School Suspensions: Are They Helping Children?","author":"Children's Defense Fund","year":"1975"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","unstructured":"CIVIL RIGHTS DATA COLLECTION Data Snapshot: School Discipline. URL:http:\/\/ocrdata.ed.gov\/Downloads\/CRDC\u2010School\u2010Discipline\u2010Snapshot.pdf(Last accessed May 27 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/79.3.434"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_10_1","unstructured":"Fancher Mark P.2009.Reclaiming Michigan's Throwaway Kids: Students Trapped in the School\u2010to\u2010prison Pipeline. URL:http:\/\/aclumich.org\/sites\/default\/files\/file\/reclaimingmichigansthrowawaykids.pdf(Last accessed 17 May 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_11_1","unstructured":"Happy Anniversary Michigan Reforms: Ten Years after Major Sentencing Reform Victory Michigan Residents Safer. URL:http:\/\/famm.org\/happy\u2010anniversary\u2010michigan\u2010reforms\u2010ten\u2010years\u2010after\u2010major\u2010sentencing\u2010reform\u2010victory\u2010michigan\u2010residents\u2010safer\/(Last accessed 1 June2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_12_1","unstructured":"Kang\u2010Brown Jacob JenniferTrone JenniferFratelloandTarikaDaftary\u2010Kapur.2013.What We've Learned about Zero Tolerance in Schools. URL:http:\/\/www.vera.org\/sites\/default\/files\/resources\/downloads\/zero\u2010tolerance\u2010in\u2010schools\u2010policy\u2010brief.pdf. (Last accessed 2 May 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885511415227"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_14_1","unstructured":"Mauer MarcandT.Huling.1995.Young black Americans and the Criminal Justice System: Five Years Later. URL:http:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/doc\/publications\/rd_youngblack_5yrslater.pdf(Last accessed 6 June 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0042085910364475"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_16_1","unstructured":"Porowski Allan RosemarieO'ConnerandAikateriniPassa.2014.In School Discipline: An Assessment of Trends in Maryland 2009\u201312. URL:http:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/pubsearch\/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=REL2014017(Last accessed 15 May 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_17_1","unstructured":"Preschool to Prison: No Child too Young for Zero\u2010tolerance. URL:http:\/\/www.msnbc.com\/msnbc\/preschool\u2010prison\u2010no\u2010child\u2010too\u2010young(Last accessed 5 June2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_18_1","unstructured":"Roelofs R.2014.\u2018Zero Tolerance\u2019 School Reforms Hit Resistance in Michigan.The Bridge Magazine [online] p.1. 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