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Avoiding this loss is difficult due to the essential nature of the metabolic processes involved but it could be possible to engineer metabolism to reuse the generated CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    . Here, we employ constraint\u2010based modelling to reveal that crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) cycling is the most efficient native mechanism for nocturnal CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    reassimilation in a leaf. CAM cycling can, in principle, reassimilate 100% of the CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    generated at night leading to increased growth while requiring only a modest increase in energy consumption. Other native CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    fixation routes proved less efficient, running into system balance issues and energy limitations. We also tested the feasibility of the synthetic crotonyl\u2010(CoA)\/ethylmalonyl\u2010CoA\/hydroxybutyryl\u2010CoA (CETCH) cycle for nocturnal CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    reassimilation. This revealed an unexpected limitation in the supply of NADPH at night without generating additional metabolic CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    and working directly against the goal of CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    reassimilation. As a result, the nocturnal CETCH cycle was highly inefficient, increasing total flux through metabolism by 2.5\u2010fold and using 100% of the available energy. This inefficiency could be partially addressed by switching the CETCH cycle to using NADH as the coenzyme or by distributing some of its enzymatic activity to the day phase of the model. We conclude that CAM cycling provides the most promising route for engineering enhanced carbon efficiency in C3 crops.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/tpj.71003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T05:55:47Z","timestamp":1783058147000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Metabolic design considerations for recycling of respiratory\n                    <scp>\n                      CO\n                      <sub>2<\/sub>\n                    <\/scp>\n                    in leaves"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"127","author":[{"given":"Corinna","family":"Hartinger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Life and Mind Building Oxford OX1 3EL UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward N.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of 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