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Moreover, the commonly provided aggregated units, such as census tracts, vary in size and across data sources. Existing literature on disaggregation typically handles individual subgroups separately, ignoring their interrelations in the downscaling process. This article explores the potentials of multi\u2010output regression models for simultaneous spatial downscaling of multiple groups and conducts a detailed spatial error analysis using individualized neighborhoods. We experiment with self\u2010training gradient\u2010boosting trees and fully convolutional neural networks, assessing the quality of results against ground truth data at the target resolution. We show that the evaluation of the disaggregated results at this detailed resolution requires unconventional methods. The methodology proves convenient and achieves high\u2010accuracy results using input datasets of building features.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.13130","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T03:26:55Z","timestamp":1704857215000},"page":"130-153","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Modeling population distribution: A visual and quantitative analysis of gradient boosting and deep learning models for multi\u2010output spatial disaggregation"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7794-8308","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Georgati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aalborg University  Copenhagen Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4491-3744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IST\/INESC\u2010ID Universidade de Lisboa  Lisbon Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3856-2936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IST\/INESC\u2010ID Universidade de Lisboa  Lisbon Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9724-820X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carsten","family":"Ke\u00dfler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aalborg University  Copenhagen Denmark"},{"name":"Bochum University of Applied Sciences  Bochum Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7004-0698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henning Sten","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aalborg University  Copenhagen Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"High resolution map of migrants in the EU","year":"2017","author":"Alessandrini A.","key":"e_1_2_11_2_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2014.909045"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/gean.12013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0825"},{"volume-title":"Forside\u2014bbr teknik","year":"2021","author":"Bygnings\u2010 og Boligregistret","key":"e_1_2_11_6_1"},{"volume-title":"CatBoost\u2014Open\u2010source gradient boosting library","year":"2022","author":"CatBoost","key":"e_1_2_11_7_1"},{"volume-title":"Population grids for analysing long\u2010term change in ethnic diversity and segregation","year":"2020","author":"Catney G.","key":"e_1_2_11_8_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2020.1854767"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","unstructured":"CIESIN. 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