{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T23:32:44Z","timestamp":1776123164829,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,12]],"date-time":"2021-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Experimental Physiology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>New Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n<jats:list-item>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>What is the central question of this study?<\/jats:bold><\/jats:p>\n<jats:p>How does deep breath\u2010hold diving impact cardiopulmonary function, both acutely and over the subsequent 2.5\u00a0hours post\u2010dive?<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>What is the main finding and its importance?<\/jats:bold><\/jats:p>\n<jats:p>Breath\u2010hold diving, to depths below residual volume, is associated with acute impairments in pulmonary gas exchange, which typically resolve within 2.5\u00a0hours. These data provide new insight into the behaviour of the lungs and pulmonary vasculature following deep diving.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list><\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Breath\u2010hold diving involves highly integrative and extreme physiological responses to both exercise and asphyxia during progressive elevations in hydrostatic pressure. Over two diving training camps (Study 1 and 2), 25 breath\u2010hold divers (recreational to world\u2010champion) performed 66 dives to 57\u00a0\u00b1\u00a020\u00a0m (range: 18\u2013117\u00a0m). Using the deepest dive from each diver, temporal changes in cardiopulmonary function were assessed using non\u2010invasive pulmonary gas exchange (indexed via the O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> deficit), ultrasound B\u2010line scores, lung compliance and pulmonary haemodynamics at baseline and following the dive. Hydrostatically induced lung compression was quantified in Study 2, using spirometry and lung volume measurement, enabling each dive to be categorized by its residual volume (RV)\u2010equivalent depth. From both studies, pulmonary gas exchange inefficiency \u2013 defined as an increase in O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> deficit \u2013 was related to the depth of the dive (<jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sup>2\u00a0<\/jats:sup>=\u00a00.345; <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u00a0&lt;\u00a00.001), with dives associated with lung squeeze symptoms exhibiting the greatest deficits. In Study 1, although B\u2010lines doubled from baseline (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a00.027), cardiac output and pulmonary artery systolic pressure were unchanged post\u2010dive. In Study 2, dives with lung compression to \u2264RV had higher O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> deficits at 9\u00a0min, compared to dives that did not exceed RV (24\u00a0\u00b1\u00a025 vs. 5\u00a0\u00b1\u00a08\u00a0mmHg; <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a00.021). The physiological significance of a small increase in estimated lung compliance post\u2010dive (via decreased and increased\/unaltered airway resistance and reactance, respectively) remains equivocal. Following deep dives, the current study highlights an integrated link between hydrostatically induced lung compression and transient impairments in pulmonary gas exchange efficiency.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1113\/ep089176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]],"date-time":"2021-02-10T21:26:48Z","timestamp":1612992408000},"page":"1120-1133","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Temporal changes in pulmonary gas exchange efficiency when breath\u2010hold diving below residual volume"],"prefix":"10.1113","volume":"106","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2634-6195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Patrician","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Heart Lung &amp; Vascular Health University of British Columbia \u2013 Okanagan  Kelowna BC Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Boris","family":"Spaji\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb  Zagreb Croatia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Gasho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Heart Lung &amp; Vascular Health University of British Columbia \u2013 Okanagan  Kelowna BC Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6072-7277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannah G.","family":"Caldwell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Heart Lung &amp; Vascular Health University of British Columbia \u2013 Okanagan  Kelowna BC Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5203-135X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tony","family":"Dawkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences Cardiff Metropolitan University  Cardiff UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0818-6420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Stembridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences Cardiff Metropolitan University  Cardiff UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew T.","family":"Lovering","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Physiology University of Oregon  Eugene OR USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2667-0013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geoff B.","family":"Coombs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Heart Lung &amp; 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