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Astronauts followed a fixed protocol comprising controlled and random frequency breathing and apnoea, conceived to perturb their autonomic function and identify changes, if any, provoked by microgravity exposure. We recorded the electrocardiogram, finger photoplethysmographic arterial pressure, tidal carbon dioxide concentrations and volumes, and peroneal nerve muscle sympathetic activity on Earth (in the supine position) and in space. (Sympathetic nerve recordings were made during three sessions: preflight, late mission and landing day.) Arterial pressure changed systematically from preflight levels: pressure fell during early microgravity exposure, rose as microgravity exposure continued, and drifted back to preflight levels after return to Earth. Vagal metrics changed in opposite directions: vagal baroreflex gain and two indices of vagal fluctuations (root mean square of successive normal R\u2010R intervals; and proportion of successive normal R\u2010R intervals greater than 50 ms, divided by the total number of normal R\u2010R intervals) rose significantly during early microgravity exposure, fell as microgravity exposure continued, and descended to preflight levels upon return to Earth. Sympathetic mechanisms also changed. Burst frequencies (but not areas) during fixed frequency breathing were greater than preflight in space and on landing day, but their control during apnoea was sharply altered: astronauts increased their burst frequencies from already high levels, but they could not modulate either burst areas or frequencies appropriately. Space travel provokes long\u2010lasting sympathetic and vagal neuroplastic changes in healthy humans.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1113\/jp271656","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,30]],"date-time":"2016-03-30T23:22:00Z","timestamp":1459380120000},"page":"5629-5646","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Respiratory modulation of human autonomic function: long\u2010term neuroplasticity in space"],"prefix":"10.1113","volume":"594","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5657-0059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dwain L.","family":"Eckberg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Medicine and Physiology Hunter Holmes McGuire Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine  Richmond VA USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Diedrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine Division of Clinical Pharmacology Autonomic Dysfunction Center Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Vanderbilt University  Nashville TN USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William H.","family":"Cooke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Nutrition University of Texas at San Antonio  San Antonio TX USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Italo","family":"Biaggioni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine Division of Clinical Pharmacology Autonomic Dysfunction Center Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Vanderbilt University  Nashville TN USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"suffix":"Jr","given":"Jay C.","family":"Buckey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Centre  Lebanon NH USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James A.","family":"Pawelczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology Pennsylvania State University  University Park and Hershey PA USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew C.","family":"Ertl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine Division of Clinical Pharmacology Autonomic Dysfunction Center Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Vanderbilt University  Nashville TN USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James F.","family":"Cox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Medicine and Physiology Hunter Holmes McGuire Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine  Richmond VA USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tom A.","family":"Kuusela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics Turku University  Turku Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kari U.O.","family":"Tahvanainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine South Karelia Central Hospital  Lappeenranta Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tadaaki","family":"Mano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gifu University of Medical Science  795\u20101 Nagamine Ichihiraga Seki Gifu 501\u20103892 Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Iwase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology Aichi Medical University  Aichi Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Friedhelm J.","family":"Baisch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DLR\u2010Institute for Aerospace Medicine  Cologne Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin D.","family":"Levine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine University of Texas Southwestern Medical Centre at Dallas  Dallas TX USA"},{"name":"Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital  Dallas TX USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Beverley","family":"Adams\u2010Huet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Texas Southwestern  Dallas TX USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Robertson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine Division of Clinical Pharmacology Autonomic Dysfunction Center Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Vanderbilt University  Nashville TN USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"C. 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