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However, cardiac tissue is composed of discretized cells with microscopic and macroscopic heterogeneities and discontinuities, such as subcellular localizations of sodium channels and connexins. In addition to this, there are heterogeneities in the distribution of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, which powerfully regulate impulse propagation. In the continuous models, the ultrastructural details, i.e. the microscopic heterogeneities and discontinuities, are ignored by \u2018coarse graining\u2019 or \u2018smoothing\u2019. However, these ultrastructural components may play crucial roles in cardiac conduction and arrhythmogenesis, particularly in disease states. 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