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To address the methodological limitations of prior menstrual cycle research, we established the motor units and sex hormones (MUSH) collaboration. This multisite investigation aimed to move beyond characterization of motor unit firing across the menstrual cycle and determine whether fluctuations in E2 and P4 influence motor unit activity. We hypothesized that discharge rates and persistent inward current (PIC)\u2013related contributions to discharge would be greatest during the late follicular (LF) phase, when E2 concentrations were highest. Fifty women completed a comprehensive protocol involving menstrual cycle and ovulation tracking, serum hormone measurement and high\u2010density surface electromyographic recordings from the tibialis anterior during isometric contractions to quantify motor unit activity in the early follicular, LF and mid\u2010luteal phases. After 10 women with atypical hormone concentration profiles or insufficient motor unit yield were excluded, 40 remained for analysis. There were significant changes in several motor unit discharge variables between menstrual cycle phases and significant associations with hormone concentrations. Increased E2 was associated with higher peak discharge rates and ascending discharge rate non\u2010linearity, whereas increased P4 was associated with higher peak discharge rates, more discharge rate hysteresis and ascending discharge rate non\u2010linearity. Despite reaching statistical significance, the magnitudes of these effects (i.e. effect sizes) were small. Overall, these findings indicate that fluctuations in sex hormones influence motor unit behaviour, but the effects are subtle, highlighting the need for well\u2010powered and methodologically rigorous menstrual cycle research.\n                      <jats:boxed-text content-type=\"graphic\" position=\"anchor\">\n                        <jats:graphic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" mimetype=\"image\/png\" position=\"anchor\" specific-use=\"enlarged-web-image\" xlink:href=\"graphic\/tjp70846-gra-0001-m.png\">\n                          <jats:alt-text>image<\/jats:alt-text>\n                        <\/jats:graphic>\n                      <\/jats:boxed-text>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Key points<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>There are small but detectable differences in motor unit discharge rates between menstrual cycle phases, which are predicted by within\u2010participant fluctuations in oestradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4).<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Discharge rate patterns that provide estimates of neuromodulatory and inhibitory input suggest that E2 and P4 can influence spinal cord circuitry differently than has previously been documented in the brain, highlighting an understudied aspect of female neurophysiology.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>Variability in menstrual cycles and associate hormones makes large\u2010scale, rigorous studies especially valuable in female neuromuscular research.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1113\/jp291036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T05:18:08Z","timestamp":1791868688000},"page":"8594-8615","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Motor unit discharge properties are modestly influenced by menstrual cycle\u2013related fluctuations in sex hormone concentrations"],"prefix":"10.1113","volume":"604","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3150-1281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sophia T.","family":"Jenz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine Northwestern University  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6702-7396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"P\u00e1draig","family":"Spillane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Wellbeing Northumbria University  Newcastle Upon Tyne UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3490-6986","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mollie","family":"O'Hanlon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport Health and Performance Enhancement (SHAPE) Research Centre, Department of Sport Science Nottingham Trent University  Nottingham UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6726-5140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"N\u00e9d\u00e9lec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Wellbeing Northumbria University  Newcastle Upon Tyne UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1324-7278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C. J.","family":"Heckman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine Northwestern University  Chicago Illinois USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7804-4631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathew","family":"Piasecki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Metabolism, Ageing and Physiology (CoMAP), NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre University of Nottingham  Nottingham UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7542-1107","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Ansdell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Wellbeing Northumbria University  Newcastle Upon Tyne UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9758-6295","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica","family":"Piasecki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport Health and Performance Enhancement (SHAPE) Research Centre, Department of Sport Science Nottingham Trent University  Nottingham UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6751-4351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory E. 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