{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T15:27:12Z","timestamp":1788276432302,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784937600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784937600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DP230100728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP230100728"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The Journal of Physiology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"abstract":"\n Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n How Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n channel isoforms set their activation voltages \u2013 and thereby define their specific functional roles in excitable cells \u2013 remains poorly understood. We show that extracellular charges in the domain II (DII) S3\u2013S4 loop critically tune voltage\u2010sensor activation in Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n 1.7. Introducing positively charged residues in this loop depolarizes activation, whereas additional negative charges shift it in the hyperpolarizing direction. Extracellular Ca\n 2<\/jats:sup>\n +<\/jats:sup>\n further modulates these effects through electrostatic screening, demonstrating that local surface charge is a key determinant of voltage\u2010sensor function. The Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n 1.7\u2010selective spider toxin Pn3a, which binds the DII S3\u2013S4 loop, produces enhanced depolarizing shifts when its net positive charge is increased, showing that ligand electrostatics can fine\u2010tune gating. Together, these results demonstrate that the local electrostatic environment near the DII voltage sensor controls Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n 1.7 activation, providing a general mechanism \u2013 likely conserved across all voltage\u2010gated ion channels \u2013 by which loop charges, extracellular ions or bound ligands can modulate channel function. By showing that local electrostatics near the DII voltage sensor govern activation, our findings provide a mechanistic explanation for isoform\u2010specific gating and a framework for precisely tuning Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n channel function with engineered charged ligands.\n \n \n image<\/jats:alt-text>\n <\/jats:graphic>\n <\/jats:boxed-text>\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Key points<\/jats:title>\n \n \n \n \n Voltage\u2010gated sodium (Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n ) channels are essential for generating electrical signals in nerves, muscles and the heart, yet how different Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n types are tuned to open at specific voltages was not well understood.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n \n This study shows that charged amino acids on the outer part of Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n 1.7\u00a0help set the voltage at which the channel activates, with positive charges making it harder to open and negative charges making it easier.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n We find that extracellular calcium can influence this process, demonstrating that the local electrical environment around the channel shapes its activity.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n A naturally occurring spider toxin, Pn3a, can also adjust channel activation depending on its surface charge, suggesting that we can engineer ligands to fine\u2010tune excitability.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n \n \n Together, these results explain how Na\n V<\/jats:sub>\n channels achieve isoform\u2010specific gating and provide a framework for designing molecules that selectively control activation, with potential implications for pain and other disorders.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:list-item>\n <\/jats:list>\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1113\/jp291286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T07:28:51Z","timestamp":1784964531000},"page":"7210-7224","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Electrostatic tuning of Na\n V<\/sub>\n channel activation by the domain II S3\u2013S4 extracellular loop"],"prefix":"10.1113","volume":"604","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1695-1604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashvriya","family":"Thapa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Molecular Bioscience The University of Queensland St Lucia Queensland Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7137-1656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lotten","family":"Ragnarsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Molecular Bioscience The University of Queensland St 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