{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T16:08:44Z","timestamp":1782317324313,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"ASME International","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.asme.org\/publications-submissions\/publishing-information\/legal-policies"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["asmedigitalcollection.asme.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Physical artificial intelligence (AI) is driving the next revolution in robotics by grounding perception, action, and cognition within a robot\u2019s physical structure. Unlike traditional systems that rely on disembodied reasoning and preprogrammed control, physical AI leverages sensorimotor coupling to enable real-time adaptation, experiential learning, and generalized task performance. Advances in machine learning, high-fidelity simulations, and multimodal sensing have accelerated progress toward real-world deployment. This position article articulates a unifying perspective on physical AI, outlining its conceptual evolution, defining system-level principles, and analyzing key functional subsystems, such as situational awareness, mapping, planning, control, and human\u2013robot interaction. It provides a domain-wise readiness assessment across manufacturing, healthcare, logistics, agriculture, service robotics, and space exploration, highlighting opportunities and limitations. Finally, it identifies critical challenges\u2014real-time performance, cybersecurity, benchmarking, safety, interpretability, and energy efficiency\u2014and proposes codesign principles and evaluation frameworks to guide future research. By synthesizing these elements, the article positions physical AI as a foundational paradigm for trustworthy, adaptive, and mission-ready robotic systems, offering readers a roadmap for research priorities, cross-domain insights, and practical implications that will shape the next era of robotics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4070122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T10:36:53Z","timestamp":1760092613000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1115\/crossmarkpolicy-asme","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Physical Artificial Intelligence for Powering the Next Revolution in Robotics"],"prefix":"10.1115","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Atul","family":"Thakur","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Indian Institute of Technology Patna BioRobotics & Artificial Intelligence (BRAIn) Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, , , \u00a0 ,","place":["Bihta, Bihar, India, 801106"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krishnanand","family":"Kaipa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04zjtrb98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Old Dominion University Collaborative Robotics & Adaptive Machines Laboratory, Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, , , \u00a0","place":["Norfolk, VA, 23529"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashis G.","family":"Banerjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering, , , \u00a0 ;","place":["Seattle, WA, 98195"]},{"name":"University of Washington Department of Mechanical Engineering, , , \u00a0","place":["Seattle, WA, 98195"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David J.","family":"Cappelleri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Purdue University School of Mechanical Engineering, , , \u00a0","place":["West Lafayette, IN, 47906"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Venkat N.","family":"Krovi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/037s24f05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Clemson University School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, , , \u00a0","place":["Greenville, SC, 29607"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satyandra","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03taz7m60","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Southern California Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, , , \u00a0 ;","place":["Los Angeles, CA, 90089"]},{"name":"University of Southern California Department of Computer Science, , , \u00a0","place":["Los Angeles, CA, 90089"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"33","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0364-0213(80)80015-2","article-title":"Physical Symbol Systems","volume":"4","author":"Newell","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/JRA.1986.1087032","article-title":"A Robust Layered Control System for a Mobile Robot","volume":"2","author":"Brooks","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE J. Rob. Auto."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0003","volume-title":"Being there: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again","author":"Clark","year":"1997"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6730.001.0001","volume-title":"The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience","author":"Varela","year":"1991"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0005","volume-title":"How the Body Shapes the Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2007"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0006","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1109\/TETCI.2022.3141105","article-title":"A Survey of Embodied Ai: From Simulators to Research Tasks","volume":"6","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Emerg. Top. Comput. Intell."},{"issue":"1869","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20210447","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2021.0447","article-title":"Learning Robotic Navigation From Experience: Principles, Methods and Recent Results","volume":"378","author":"Levine","year":"2023","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1561\/2300000066","article-title":"A Roadmap for Us Robotics\u2014From Internet to Robotics 2020 Edition","volume":"8","author":"Christensen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Found. Trends\u00ae Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0009","first-page":"9339","article-title":"Habitat: A Platform for Embodied Ai Research","author":"Savva","year":"2019"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0010","first-page":"13192","article-title":"On Grounded Planning for Embodied Tasks With Language Models","author":"Lin","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0011","author":"Zhang","year":"2023"},{"issue":"5","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-024-4395-7","article-title":"Embodied Intelligence in RO\/RO Logistic Terminal: Autonomous Intelligent Transportation Robot Architecture","volume":"68","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. China Inform. Sci."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0013","author":"Liu","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0014","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1109\/OJITS.2022.3181510","article-title":"Autonomous Vehicles on the Edge: A Survey on Autonomous Vehicle Racing","volume":"3","author":"Betz","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0015","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1142\/9789811222849_0001","volume-title":"Recent Advances in Industrial Robotics \u2013 Introduction","author":"Gupta","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0016","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2022.106742","article-title":"Special Report: The Internet of Things for Precision Agriculture (iot4ag)","volume":"196","author":"Kagan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0017","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"020801","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4054611","article-title":"A Survey of Wheeled Mobile Manipulation: A Decision-Making Perspective","volume":"15","author":"Thakar","year":"2023","journal-title":"ASME J. Mech. Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0018","author":"Verma","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0019","author":"NVIDIA","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0020","author":"Team","year":"2003"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0021","article-title":"Attention is All You Need","author":"Vaswani","year":"2017"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0022","first-page":"1995","volume-title":"Informatik 2014","author":"Horv\u00e1th","year":"2014"},{"issue":"236","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0023","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433","article-title":"Computing Machinery and Intelligence","volume":"59","author":"Turing","year":"1950","journal-title":"Mind"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0024","volume-title":"What Computers Can\u2019t Do: A Critique of Artificial Reason","author":"Dreyfus","year":"1972"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0025","volume-title":"Computer-Based Medical Consultations: MYCIN","author":"Shortliffe","year":"1976"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-934613-03-3.50026-X","volume-title":"Readings in Artificial Intelligence","author":"Buchanan","year":"1981"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0027","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(91)90053-M","article-title":"Intelligence Without Representation","volume":"47","author":"Brooks","year":"1991","journal-title":"Artif. Intell."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0028","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(05)80025-9","article-title":"Elephants Don\u2019t Play Chess","volume":"6","author":"Brooks","year":"1990","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"3","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0029","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(98)01141-3","article-title":"Behavior-Based Robotics as a Tool for Synthesis of Artificial Behavior and Analysis of Natural Behavior","volume":"2","author":"Matari\u0107","year":"1998","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"issue":"5","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0030","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X01000115","article-title":"A Sensorimotor Account of Vision and Visual Consciousness","volume":"24","author":"O\u2019Regan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0031","volume-title":"Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers","author":"\u00c5str\u00f6m","year":"2008"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0032","volume-title":"The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception","author":"Gibson","year":"1979"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0033","first-page":"423","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction by Richard\u2019s Sutton","volume":"6","author":"Barto","year":"2021","journal-title":"SIAM Rev."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0034","article-title":"Language Models Are Few-Shot Learners","author":"Brown","year":"2020"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0035","volume-title":"GPT-4 Technical Report","author":"Achiam","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0036","first-page":"1","article-title":"Generative Agents: Interactive Simulacra of Human Behavior","author":"Park","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0037","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-68256-8_5","volume-title":"Building Embodied AI Systems: The Agents the Architecture Principles, Challenges, and Application Domains","author":"Natarajan","year":"2025","edition":"1 st"},{"issue":"21","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0038","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12809","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-024-09960-z","article-title":"Neuro-Symbolic Artificial Intelligence: A Survey","volume":"36","author":"Bhuyan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Comput. Appl."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0039","first-page":"5877","article-title":"Learning to Act with Affordance-Aware Multimodal Neural Slam","author":"Jia","year":"2022"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0040","first-page":"10608","article-title":"Visual Language Maps for Robot Navigation","author":"Huang","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0041","first-page":"1743","article-title":"Embodied Concept Learner: Self-Supervised Learning of Concepts and Mapping through Instruction Following","author":"Ding","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0042","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.70058","article-title":"Inf-Slim: Large-Scale Implicit Neural Fields for Semantic Lidar Mapping of Embodied Ai Agents","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Field Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0043","article-title":"How To Not TrainYour Dragon: Training-Free Embodied Object Goal Navigation with Semantic Frontiers","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"arxiv"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0044","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787659","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.787659","article-title":"Generalized Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (g-Slam) as Unification Framework for Natural and Artificial Intelligences: Towards Reverse Engineering the Hippocampal\/entorhinal System and Principles of High-Level Cognition","volume":"16","author":"Safron","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0045","first-page":"8847","article-title":"The Threedworld Transport Challenge: A Visually Guided Task-and-Motion Planning Benchmark Towards Physically Realistic Embodied AI","author":"Gan","year":"2022"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0046","author":"Azzolini","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2022.XVIII.032","article-title":"Embodied Multi-Agent Task Planning From Ambiguous Instruction.","author":"Liu","year":"2022"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.01004","article-title":"Context-Aware Planning and Environment-Aware Memory for Instruction Following Embodied Agents","author":"Kim","year":"2023"},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0049","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9040248","article-title":"Exploring Embodied Intelligence in Soft Robotics: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomimetics"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2022.3200138","article-title":"Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes in Robotics: A Survey","volume":"39","author":"Lauri","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Rob."},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0051","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-011-0404-1","article-title":"Model Learning for Robot Control: A Survey","volume":"12","author":"Nguyen-Tuong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cogn. Process."},{"issue":"143","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0052","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20170937","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2017.0937","article-title":"Scalable Co-Optimization of Morphology and Control in Embodied Machines","volume":"15","author":"Cheney","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"issue":"11","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0053","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913495721","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics: A Survey","volume":"32","author":"Kober","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inter. J. Rob. Res."},{"issue":"5721","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0054","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-25874-z","article-title":"Embodied Intelligence via Learning and Evolution","volume":"12","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0055","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-control-042920-020211","article-title":"Safe Learning in Robotics: From Learning-Based Control to Safe Reinforcement Learning","volume":"4","author":"Brunke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Control Rob. Auto. Syst."},{"issue":"12","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0056","first-page":"1633","article-title":"Transfer Learning for Reinforcement Learning Domains: A Survey","volume":"10","author":"Taylor","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0057","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108952","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2998358","article-title":"Digital Twin: Enabling Technologies, Challenges and Open Research","volume":"8","author":"Fuller","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0058","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1109\/TCDS.2019.2897618","article-title":"Combined Sensing, Cognition, Learning, and Control for Developing Future Neuro-Robotics Systems: A Survey","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cogn. Develop. Syst."},{"issue":"5","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0059","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2008.10.024","article-title":"A Survey of Robot Learning From Demonstration","volume":"57","author":"Argall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3054912","article-title":"Imitation Learning: A Survey of Learning Methods","volume":"50","author":"Hussein","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"issue":"1-2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1561\/2300000072","article-title":"Interactive Imitation Learning in Robotics: A Survey","volume":"10","author":"Celemin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Found. Trends\u00ae Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0062","article-title":"Inner Monologue: Embodied Reasoning through Planning with Language Models","volume-title":"arXiv","author":"Huang","year":"2022"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0063","article-title":"Collaborating With Language Models for Embodied Reasoning","author":"Dasgupta","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0064","first-page":"2998","article-title":"Llm-Planner: Few-Shot Grounded Planning for Embodied Agents With Large Language Models","author":"Song","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0065","article-title":"Embodied Agent Interface: Benchmarking LLMs for Embodied Decision Making","author":"Li","year":"2024"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0066","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1561\/1100000005","article-title":"Human-Robot Interaction: A Survey","volume":"1","author":"Goodrich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Found. Trends Human\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0067","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S1071-5819(03)00018-1","article-title":"Emotion and Sociable Humanoid Robots","volume":"59","author":"Breazeal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Inter. J. Human\u2013Comput. Studies"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0068","first-page":"7520","article-title":"igibson 1.0: A Simulation Environment for Interactive Tasks in Large Realistic Scenes","author":"Shen","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0069","first-page":"8847","article-title":"The Threedworld Transport Challenge: A Visually Guided Task-and-Motion Planning Benchmark Towards Physically Realistic Embodied Ai","author":"Gan","year":"2022"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0070","first-page":"28630","article-title":"Embodied AI for Smart Robotic Cells in Manufacturing Applications","author":"Gupta","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0071","first-page":"4025","article-title":"Safe Reinforcement Learning Using Formal Verification for Tissue Retraction in Autonomous Robotic-Assisted Surgery","author":"Pore","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0072","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S453903","article-title":"Impact of AI-Powered Solutions in Rehabilitation Process: Recent Improvements and Future Trends","volume":"17","author":"Khalid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inter. J. General Med."},{"issue":"6","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0073","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics11060127","article-title":"A Review on the Use of Mobile Service Robots in Elderly Care","volume":"11","author":"Asgharian","year":"2022","journal-title":"MDPI Rob."},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0074","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmg.2022.07.018","article-title":"Current Applications of Robot-Assisted Ultrasound Examination","volume":"16","author":"Hidalgo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Imag."},{"issue":"6","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0075","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-024-00859-x","article-title":"Machine Learning for Micro- and Nanorobots","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Mach. Intell."},{"issue":"58","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0076","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabf3368","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abf3368","article-title":"Neurorobotic Fusion of Prosthetic Touch, Kinesthesia, and Movement in Bionic Upper Limbs Promotes Intrinsic Brain Behaviors","volume":"6","author":"Marasco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0077","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"902162","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2022.902162","article-title":"Measuring Embodiment: A Review of Methods for Prosthetic Devices","volume":"16","author":"Segil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurorob."},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0078","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s43154-021-00057-2","article-title":"Autonomy for Space Robots: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"2","author":"Nesnas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Current Rob. Rep."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0079","author":"NASA","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0080","author":"Diftler","year":"2010"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0081","first-page":"1","article-title":"Robonaut 2 and Watson: Cognitive Dexterity for Future Exploration","author":"Badger","year":"2011"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0082","author":"Cerutti","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0083","author":"Gizzi","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0084","author":"European Space Agency","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0085","first-page":"2517","article-title":"Astrobee: A New Tool for ISS Operations","author":"Bualat","year":"2018"},{"issue":"9","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0086","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2008.11.011","article-title":"Dextre: Improving maintenance operations on the International Space Station","volume":"64","author":"Coleshill","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0087","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(97)00054-7","article-title":"The European Robotic Arm for the International Space Station","volume":"23","author":"Boumans","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0088","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2014.09.031","article-title":"A Review of Verbal and Non-Verbal Human\u2013Robot Interactive Communication","volume":"63","author":"Mavridis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"16","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0089","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3023","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16163023","article-title":"Digital Twin of Space Environment: Development, Challenges, Applications, and Future Outlook","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0090","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.20517\/ir.2025.11","article-title":"Digital Twins to Embodied Artificial Intelligence: Review and Perspective","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Intell. Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0091","author":"Arney","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0092","author":"Stone","year":"2016"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0093","author":"Schaler","year":"2022"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0094","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(02)00372-X","article-title":"A Survey of Socially Interactive Robots","volume":"42","author":"Fong","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0095","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2007.339605","article-title":"Socially Assistive Robotics","volume":"14","author":"Tapus","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Rob. Auto. Magaz."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0096","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1368805","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1368805","article-title":"Advancing healthcare through mobile collaboration: a survey of intelligent nursing robots research","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0097","first-page":"287","article-title":"Robots in Organizations: The Role of Workflow, Social, and Environmental Factors in Human-Robot Interaction","author":"Mutlu","year":"2008"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0098","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2025.1604472","article-title":"Multimodal Perception-Driven Decision-Making for Human\u2013Robot Interaction: A Survey","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Rob. AI"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0099","article-title":"Service Robotics Market by Type, Environment, Application, and Region \u2013 Global Forecast to 2029","author":"MarketsandMarkets","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9197326","article-title":"Self-Supervised Sim-to-Real Adaptation for Visual Robotic Manipulation","author":"Jeong","year":"2020"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0101","author":"Aethon","year":"2025"},{"issue":"12","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10212658","article-title":"Service Robots: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0103","author":"Lisondra","year":"2025"},{"issue":"8","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2010.08.010","article-title":"The Icub Humanoid Robot: An Open-Systems Platform for Research in Cognitive Development","volume":"23","author":"Metta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0105","first-page":"1362","article-title":"Dobby: A Conversational Service Robot Driven by GPT-4","author":"Stark","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0106","author":"Sun","year":"2025"},{"issue":"9","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.1007\/s10994-021-05961-4","article-title":"Challenges of Real-World Reinforcement Learning: Definitions, Benchmarks and Analysis","volume":"110","author":"Dulac-Arnold","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics10040120","article-title":"Personalization and Localization in Human-Robot Interaction: A Review of Technical Methods","volume":"10","author":"Hellou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Robotics"},{"issue":"12","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1700016","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.201700016","article-title":"Soft Robotics: Review of Fluid-Driven Intrinsically Soft Devices; Manufacturing, Sensing, Control, and Applications","volume":"19","author":"Polygerinos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0110","author":"Huang","year":"2023"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2022.3143803","article-title":"Artificial Emotional Intelligence in Socially Assistive Robots for Older Adults: A Pilot Study","volume":"14","author":"Abdollahi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Affect. Comput."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-control-062023-082238","article-title":"Ethics of Social Robotics: Individual and Societal Concerns and Opportunities","volume":"7","author":"Torras","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Control, Rob., Auto. Syst."},{"issue":"3","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7942","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3187275","article-title":"P-Agbot: In-Row & Under-Canopy Agricultural Robot for Monitoring and Physical Sampling","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Rob. Auto. Lett."},{"issue":"8","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12081240","article-title":"An Overview of End Effectors in Agricultural Robotic Harvesting Systems","volume":"12","author":"Vrochidou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Agriculture"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0115","first-page":"3634","article-title":"The Robotanist: A Ground-Based Agricultural Robot for High-Throughput Crop Phenotyping","author":"Mueller-Sim","year":"2017"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21888","article-title":"A Field-Tested Robotic Harvesting System for Iceberg Lettuce","volume":"37","author":"Birrell","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Rob."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0117","first-page":"8291","article-title":"Deep Learning-Based Leaf Detection for Robotic Physical Sampling With P-Agbot","author":"Deb","year":"2023"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0118","first-page":"1290","article-title":"Masked-Attention Mask Transformer for Universal Image Segmentation","author":"Cheng","year":"2022"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70005","DOI":"10.1111\/jbl.70005","article-title":"How Robotics is Shaping Digital Logistics and Supply Chain Management: An Ongoing Call for Research","volume":"46","author":"Rainer Jr","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Busin. Logistics"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0120","first-page":"2","article-title":"Logisticsvista: 3D Terminal Delivery Services with Uavs, Ugvs and Usvs Based on Foundation Models and Scenarios Engineering","author":"Tian","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2022.12.228","article-title":"Machine Learning and Computer Vision for the Automation of Processes in Advanced Logistics: The Integrated Logistic Platform (ILP) 4.0.0","volume":"217","author":"Di Capua","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-88662-2_7","volume-title":"Dynamics in Logistics","author":"K\u00fcmpel","year":"2021"},{"issue":"4","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj16040220","article-title":"eVTOL Dispatch Cost Optimization Under Time-Varying Low-Altitude Delivery Demand","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"World Electric Vehicle J."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TICPS.2023.3283230","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Smart Logistics Cyber-Physical Systems: State-of-the-Arts and Potential Applications","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. indus. Cyber-Phys. Syst."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0125","author":"Siemens","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0126","author":"Waymo","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0127","author":"Gossett","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0128","author":"Panasonic","year":"2025"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2023.109165","article-title":"A Comparative Review on Multi-Modal Sensors Fusion Based on Deep Learning","volume":"213","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"issue":"10","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.111.2001118","article-title":"Robotic Communications for 5g and Beyond: Challenges and Research Opportunities","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Magaz."},{"issue":"2","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s42484-024-00225-5","article-title":"Quantum Robotics: A Review of Emerging Trends","volume":"6","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Q. Mach. Intell."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2022.04.032","article-title":"Edge Robotics: Are We Ready? An Experimental Evaluation of Current Vision and Future Directions","volume":"9","author":"Groshev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Digital Commun. Netw."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122261","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3219440","article-title":"Neuromorphic Computing for Interactive Robotics: A Systematic Review","volume":"10","author":"Aitsam","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"610446","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.610446","article-title":"Event-Based Sensing and Signal Processing in the Visual, Auditory, and Olfactory Domain: A Review","volume":"15","author":"Tayarani-Najaran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.4018\/979-8-3373-0583-7","volume-title":"Advancing Cybersecurity in Smart Factories Through Autonomous Robotic Defenses","author":"Joshi","year":"2025","edition":"1 st"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/23742917.2024.2430037","article-title":"Securing the Internet of Robotic Things: a Comprehensive Review on Machine Learning-Based Intrusion Detection","author":"Nkoom","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cyber Secur. Technol."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-99545-0.00012-9","volume-title":"Handbook of Power Electronics in Autonomous and Electric Vehicles","author":"Khalid","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0138","author":"Dascalu","year":"2024"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0139","unstructured":"Lachheb, H.\n          , 2024, \u201cA Lifelong Learning Approach to Mobile Robot Navigation,\u201d Master\u2019s thesis, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain."},{"issue":"13","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3521","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1611835114","article-title":"Overcoming Catastrophic Forgetting in Neural Networks","volume":"114","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0141","first-page":"2990","article-title":"Continual Learning With Generative Replay","author":"Shin","year":"2017"},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0142","unstructured":"Caselles-Dupr\u00e9, H.\n          , 2021, \u201cOn the Role of Actions and Machine Learning in Artificial Agent Perception,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0143","unstructured":"von R\u00fcden, L.\n          , 2023, \u201cInformed Machine Learning: Integrating Prior Knowledge Into Data-Driven Learning Systems,\u201d Ph.D. thesis, Universit\u00e4ts-und Landesbibliothek Bonn, Bonn, Germany."},{"key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0144","first-page":"12617","article-title":"Confidence-Aware Decision-Making and Control for Tool Selection*","author":"Meera","year":"2024"},{"issue":"5-6","key":"2025120812244142300_CIT0145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/01691864.2022.2029720","article-title":"Explainable Autonomous Robots: A Survey and Perspective","volume":"36","author":"Sakai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Rob."}],"container-title":["Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/asmedigitalcollection.asme.org\/computingengineering\/article-pdf\/25\/12\/121001\/7552531\/jcise-25-1315.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/asmedigitalcollection.asme.org\/computingengineering\/article-pdf\/25\/12\/121001\/7552531\/jcise-25-1315.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T17:24:54Z","timestamp":1765214694000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/asmedigitalcollection.asme.org\/computingengineering\/article\/25\/12\/120809\/1225298\/Physical-Artificial-Intelligence-for-Powering-the"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]},"references-count":145,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1115\/1.4070122","relation":{},"ISSN":["1530-9827","1944-7078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1530-9827","type":"print"},{"value":"1944-7078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]]},"article-number":"120809"}}