{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T06:52:29Z","timestamp":1791960749514,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng","issue":"01","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Biomed. Opt."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>We describe a novel method for testing a visual field that employs a computer monitor with displays of varying contrast that permits unprecedented resolution and characterization of the structure of scotomas in three dimensions. Patients are placed in front of a touch-sensitive computer screen at a fixed distance. With one eye covered, they focus on a central fixation marker and trace with their finger the areas on an Amsler grid that are missing from their field of vision. Increasing degrees of contrast of the Amsler grid are simulated by repeating the test at different gray-scale levels. The results are recorded and then displayed as topographical contour rings by the computer test program. The results can also be rendered as an immediate 3-D depiction of the central hill-of-vision. Several clinical pilot studies have been conducted at the Doheny Eye Institute and more than 200 patients have been examined with this system so far. Conditions such as optic neuritis, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma, and ocular hypertension have been successfully assessed by this test. Each condition provides unique patterns that are most evident in 3-D. The 3-D computer-automated threshold Amsler grid test is an innovative and noninvasive visual field test. It provides several advantages over state-of-the-art standard automated perimetry, including: (1) additional information through 3-D depiction of scotomas, such as location, extent, slope, depth, and shape; (2) high angular resolution (1 deg compared with typically 6 deg); (3) a simple test setup (merely a touch-sensitive computer monitor and the test software); (4) excellent patient compliance (spending 4 to 5 min per eye). In light of its promising initial tests, the 3-D visual field test appears to have the potential for the early detection and monitoring of various diseases over time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1625952","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,1,7]],"date-time":"2004-01-07T18:01:06Z","timestamp":1073498466000},"page":"149-153","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Three-dimensional computer-automated threshold Amsler grid test"],"prefix":"10.1117","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5953-6665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Fink","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"California Institute of Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfredo A.","family":"Sadun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ. of Southern California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"189","reference":[{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r1","unstructured":"H. Snellen,\n                      Scala Tipografica per Mesurare il Visus\n                      , Utrecht, 1862;\n                      Probebuchstaben, zur Bestimmung der Sehscha\u0308rfe\n                      , Utrecht, 1862; \u201cTest types for the determination of the acuteness of vision,\u201d in S. Duke-Elder, Ed.,\n                      System of Ophthalmology\n                      , Vol. 7, p. 380, Henry Kimpton, London (1962)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r2","unstructured":"H. M. Traquair,\n                      Introduction to Clinical Perimetry\n                      , Henry Kimpton, London (1927)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/S0146-2776(84)80011-7","volume":"10","author":"Mills","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Am. Intraoc. Implant Soc."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1159\/000300476","volume":"144","author":"Amsler","year":"1947","journal-title":"Ophthalmologica","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0030-3755","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.37.9.521","volume":"37","author":"Amsler","year":"1955","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthamol.","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0007-1161","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1986.01050160076015","volume":"104","author":"Wall","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol. (Chicago)","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0003-9950","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r7","unstructured":"For further information on the 3-D computer-automated threshold Amsler grid test see http:\/\/www.jpl.nasa.gov\/releases\/2001\/release_2001_215.html and http:\/\/www.wfbabcom5.com\/wf335.htm"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r8","first-page":"S311","volume":"41","author":"Fink","year":"2000","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci.","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0146-0404","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r9","unstructured":"W. Fink, A. K. Hsieh, and A. A. Sadun, \u201cComputer-automated 3-D visual field testing in distinguishing paracentral scotomas of optic neuritis vs. AION,\u201d (to be submitted for publication)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r10","first-page":"S149","volume":"42","author":"Fahimi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci.","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0146-0404","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r11","unstructured":"A. Fahimi, A. A. Sadun, and W. Fink, \u201cComputer automated 3-D visual field testing of scotomas in glaucoma,\u201d (to be submitted for publication)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r12","first-page":"S705","volume":"42","author":"Nazemi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Visual Sci.","ISSN":"https:\/\/id.crossref.org\/issn\/0146-0404","issn-type":"print"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r13","unstructured":"P. P. Nazemi, W. Fink, J. I. Lim, and A. A. Sadun, \u201cScotomas of age-related macular degeneration detected and characterized by means of a novel computer-automated 3-D visual field testing,\u201d (to be submitted for publication)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r14","unstructured":"P. P. Nazemi, W. Fink, A. A. Sadun, D. Minckler, and B. Francis, \u201cEarly detection of glaucoma by means of a novel computer-automated 3D visual field test,\u201d poster and abstract, American Academy of Ophthalmology Meeting, New Orleans, 2001, scientific poster 33, p. 159."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r15","unstructured":"P. P. Nazemi, W. Fink, A. A. Sadun, D. Minckler, and B. Francis, \u201cEarly detection of glaucoma by means of a novel computer-automated 3-D visual field test,\u201d (to be submitted for publication)."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r16","unstructured":"W. Fink and A. A. Sadun, \u201cProspects for autonomous visual field testing on space missions,\u201d lecture and poster presented at International Conference on Integrated Nano\/Microtechnology for Space and Biomedical Applications, March 13\u201316, 2001, Houston, Texas."},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. A. Sadun, \u201cBrightness sense testing,\u201d in\n                      New Methods of Sensory Visual Testing\n                      , Michael Wall and Alfredo A. Sadun, Eds., pp. 14\u201328, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8835-7_2"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. S. Brenton, H. S. Thompson, and C. Maxner, \u201cCritical flicker frequency: a new look at an old test,\u201d in\n                      New Methods of Sensory Visual Testing\n                      , Michael Wall and Alfredo A. Sadun, Eds., pp. 29\u201352, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8835-7_3"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. J. Kupersmith, K. Holopigian, and W. H. Seiple, \u201cContrast sensitivity testing,\u201d in\n                      New Methods of Sensory Visual Testing\n                      , Michael Wall and Alfredo A. Sadun, Eds., pp. 53\u201367, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8835-7_4"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T. E. Ogden and C. J. Bassi, \u201cNew methods in clinical electrophysiology,\u201d in\n                      New Methods of Sensory Visual Testing\n                      , Michael Wall and Alfredo A. Sadun, Eds., pp. 68\u201393, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8835-7_5"},{"key":"10.1117\/1.1625952_r21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. P. Mills, \u201cAutomated perimetry: theoretical and practical considerations,\u201d in\n                      New Methods of Sensory Visual Testing\n                      , Michael Wall and Alfredo A. Sadun, Eds., pp. 112\u2013131, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8835-7_7"}],"container-title":["Journal of Biomedical Optics"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.spiedigitallibrary.org\/journals\/journal-of-biomedical-optics\/volume-9\/issue-01\/149\/Three-dimensional-computer-automated-threshold-Amsler-grid-test\/10.1117\/1.1625952.full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:25:53Z","timestamp":1790814353000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.spiedigitallibrary.org\/journals\/journal-of-biomedical-optics\/volume-9\/issue-01\/149\/Three-dimensional-computer-automated-threshold-Amsler-grid-test\/10.1117\/1.1625952.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,1,1]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"01"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.1625952","relation":{},"ISSN":["1083-3668","1560-2281"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1083-3668","type":"print"},{"value":"1560-2281","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2004,1,1]]}}}