{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T07:50:10Z","timestamp":1792137010752,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng","issue":"04","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH\/NICHD R37 HD090153"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH\/NICHD R37 HD090153"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH R37\u2013R01DC022097"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH R37\u2013R01DC022097"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neurophoton."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>SignificanceRepetition-based learning supports word recognition and reading fluency, yet its neural mechanisms remain poorly understood, particularly where deficits in consolidating repeated linguistic input may underlie reading and language difficulties. Establishing reliable neural markers of repetition-based learning is a critical first step toward characterizing the phenotypes of these difficulties in children.AimWe developed a whole-brain simultaneous functional near-infrared spectroscopy\u2013electroencephalography (fNIRS\u2013EEG) approach to capture fast temporal electrophysiological and spatially accurate hemodynamic signals during long-lag repetition learning.ApproachThirty participants performed a semantic judgment task with words repeated across four runs with intervening items, modeling repetition demands central to reading instruction. A multimodal decoding framework integrating electrophysiological, hemodynamic, and cross-modal fNIRS\u2013EEG correlation features was used to classify repetition-based learning.ResultsRepeated words showed response time reductions. EEG captured a frontal N400-range repetition-related negativity and attenuation of alpha\u2013beta suppression, reflecting changes in recognition-related and post-recognition processing. fNIRS revealed left inferior frontal and superior temporal efficiency increases alongside right supramarginal activation, suggesting integrative processing. Multimodal classifiers outperformed unimodal classifiers, indicating that each modality captured complementary aspects of learning.ConclusionsCombining fNIRS and EEG with multimodal machine learning provides a richer characterization of repetition-based learning than either modality alone, establishing a framework for phenotyping language learning capacity and identifying neural markers of reading difficulties in pediatric populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1117\/1.nph.13.4.045001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T07:30:53Z","timestamp":1792135853000},"page":"1-21","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multiscale neural signatures of long-lag repetition learning: a simultaneous fNIRS\u2013EEG study"],"prefix":"10.1117","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Jinglei","family":"Ren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9773-2790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Noah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Brain Function Laboratory, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Gracco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7361-6020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aahana","family":"Bajracharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jay G.","family":"Rueckl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Connecticut, Department of Psychological Sciences, Storrs, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3791-7472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Augusto","family":"Buchweitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Connecticut, Department of Psychological Sciences, Storrs, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1418-6489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joy","family":"Hirsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Brain Function Laboratory, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ken","family":"Pugh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"189","container-title":["Neurophotonics"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.spiedigitallibrary.org\/journals\/neurophotonics\/volume-13\/issue-04\/045001\/Multiscale-neural-signatures-of-long-lag-repetition-learning--a\/10.1117\/1.NPh.13.4.045001.full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T07:30:54Z","timestamp":1792135854000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.spiedigitallibrary.org\/journals\/neurophotonics\/volume-13\/issue-04\/045001\/Multiscale-neural-signatures-of-long-lag-repetition-learning--a\/10.1117\/1.NPh.13.4.045001.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"04","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.nph.13.4.045001","relation":{},"ISSN":["2329-423X","2329-4248"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2329-423X","type":"print"},{"value":"2329-4248","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]]}}}