{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T11:58:58Z","timestamp":1790683138229,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Acoustical Society of America (ASA)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":28,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["pubs.aip.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Outdoor sound propagation is strongly shaped by boundary layer meteorology and terrain, yet high-fidelity simulation remains too expensive for rapid scenario studies. This paper shows the development of neural-operator surrogates that map parameterized wind profiles and\/or terrain profiles to acoustic fields over a region of interest, using training data from a two-dimensional linearized Euler equation finite-difference time-domain solver with Sobol'-sequence sampling. Two operator-learning families are evaluated: deep operator networks and Fourier neural operators (FNOs) on wind-only, terrain-only, and joint wind+terrain datasets spanning multiple profile families. Beyond direct prediction of complex pressure (and derived sound pressure level), also studied is residual learning relative to fixed reference environments (no-wind and flat-ground baselines) for single-input settings. The paper provides a controlled comparison of architectures and targets and identifies when residual learning improves conditioning and generalization by emphasizing environment-induced modifications of the acoustic field. In this controlled two-dimensional setting, FNOs gave the most reliable full-field fixed-grid predictions, with out-of-distribution mean absolute sound-pressure-level errors below 2\u2009dB and simulation speedups on the order of 10\u2009000. The remaining errors are concentrated near shadow boundaries, near-ground regions, and interference structures, identifying these regions as key targets for reliability assessment in future neural-operator surrogate models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0046653","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T11:21:53Z","timestamp":1790680913000},"page":"2653-2669","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/aip-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Neural-operator surrogates for outdoor acoustics using parameterized wind and terrain profiles"],"prefix":"10.1121","volume":"160","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4956-6737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hessel","family":"Juliust","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. 1 , Wessling 82234,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich 2 , Munich 80333,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4279-0454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sirine","family":"Sionkala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. 1 , Wessling 82234,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3078-9546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arthur","family":"Schady","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Physik der Atmosph\u00e4re, Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. 1 , Wessling 82234,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2906-1769","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix","family":"Dietrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computation, Information and Technology, Technical University of Munich 2 , Munich 80333,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"231","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2026092907214558500_c1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.fluid.34.081701.143541","article-title":"Sound propagation close to the ground","volume":"34","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. 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