{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T22:35:51Z","timestamp":1769207751365,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Human Kinetics","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    In 2019, Schleu et\u00a0al. showed that 400-m runners at major championships exhibited team effort gains\u2014they ran faster in the relay than in the individual competition. However, due to low statistical power, it remains unclear whether these findings are replicable. In a replication and extension of this study, we wanted to find out whether its findings replicate in a sample of 1,718 observations from 1,270\u00a0U.S. college athletes and whether effort expenditure is driven by working in a team or the chance of valuable outcomes in the relay. As shown by linear mixed modeling and regression analyses, runners exhibited\n                    <jats:italic>effort gains<\/jats:italic>\n                    only if their relays had high medal chances and if they had not been successful in the individual competition (i.e.,\u00a0did not place first to third). Moreover, relay members who had been successful in the individual competition showed\n                    <jats:italic>effort losses<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Overall, effort expenditure was thus driven by rewards.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2025-0001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T19:22:50Z","timestamp":1767381770000},"page":"22-34","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Team- or Reward-Induced Effort Gains in Track and Field Relays? A Replication and Extension of Schleu et\u00a0al. (2019)"],"prefix":"10.1123","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0490-7035","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joachim","family":"H\u00fcffmeier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8259-9867","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ann-Kathrin","family":"Torka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7975-992X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rune","family":"H\u00f8igaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7909-473X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tommy","family":"Haugen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"100","reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"r1","series-title":"Organizational Research Methods,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428105278021","article-title":"Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations","volume":"8","author":"Becker, T.E.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Becker, T.E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274\u2013289. 10.1177\/1094428105278021"},{"key":"r2","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102235","article-title":"Larger effort gains in weaker relay swimmers independent of their starting order","volume":"62","author":"Braun, C.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Braun, C., Fischer, S., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2022). Larger effort gains in weaker relay swimmers independent of their starting order. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 62, Article 102235. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102235"},{"key":"r3","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2021.101949","article-title":"Last and fast? A gender-specific analysis of effort gains in swimming relay events across Olympic Games and World Championships during the past 20\u00a0years","volume":"55","author":"Braun, C.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braun, C., Fischer, S., Qiu, X., Limmeroth, J., & Kibele, A. (2021). Last and fast? A gender-specific analysis of effort gains in swimming relay events across Olympic Games and World Championships during the past 20\u00a0years. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 55, Article 101949. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2021.101949"},{"key":"r4","series-title":"The culture code: The secrets of highly successful groups","author":"Coyle, D.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Coyle, D. (2018). The culture code: The secrets of highly successful groups. Bantam Books."},{"issue":"5","key":"r5","series-title":"Small Group Research,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1177\/104649640103200501","article-title":"Do smarter teams do better: A meta-analysis of cognitive ability and team performance","volume":"32","author":"Devine, D.J.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Devine, D.J., & Philips, J.L. (2001). Do smarter teams do better: A meta-analysis of cognitive ability and team performance. Small Group Research, 32(5), 507\u2013532. 10.1177\/104649640103200501"},{"issue":"3","key":"r6","series-title":"Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1006\/obhd.1995.1108","article-title":"Alternatives to difference scores as dependent variables in the study of congruence in organizational research","volume":"64,","author":"Edwards, J.R.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Edwards, J.R. (1995). Alternatives to difference scores as dependent variables in the study of congruence in organizational research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64,(3) 307\u2013324. 10.1006\/obhd.1995.1108"},{"issue":"3","key":"r7","series-title":"Organizational Research Methods,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1177\/109442810143005","article-title":"Ten difference score myths","volume":"4","author":"Edwards, J.R.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Edwards, J.R. (2001). Ten difference score myths. Organizational Research Methods, 4(3), 265\u2013287. 10.1177\/109442810143005"},{"key":"r8","series-title":"Human motivation: A social psychological approach","author":"Geen, R.G.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Geen, R.G. (1995). Human motivation: A social psychological approach. Thomson Brooks\/Cole Publishing Co."},{"issue":"4","key":"r9","series-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.79.4.580","article-title":"Motivation gains in performance groups: Paradigmatic and theoretical developments on the K\u00f6hler effect","volume":"79","author":"Hertel, G.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hertel, G., Kerr, N.L., & Mess\u00e9, L.A. (2000). Motivation gains in performance groups: Paradigmatic and theoretical developments on the K\u00f6hler effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 580\u2013601. 10.1037\/0022-3514.79.4.580"},{"issue":"1","key":"r10","series-title":"International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.24985\/ijass.2013.25.1.33","article-title":"Team identification reduces social loafing and promotes social laboring in cycling","volume":"25","author":"H\u00f8igaard, R.","year":"2013","unstructured":"H\u00f8igaard, R., Boen, F., De Cuyper, B., & Peters, D.M. (2013). Team identification reduces social loafing and promotes social laboring in cycling. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 25(1), 33\u201340. 10.24985\/ijass.2013.25.1.33"},{"key":"r11","series-title":"International Journal of Sport Science,","first-page":"59","article-title":"Identifiability and social loafing: The moderating role of team cohesion","volume":"18","author":"H\u00f8igaard, R.","year":"2006","unstructured":"H\u00f8igaard, R., Tofteland, I., & Ommundsen, Y. (2006). Identifiability and social loafing: The moderating role of team cohesion. International Journal of Sport Science, 18, 59\u201373."},{"issue":"12","key":"r12","series-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1037\/apl0000245","article-title":"On the boundary conditions of effort losses and effort gains in action teams","volume":"102","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Filusch, M., Mazei, J., Hertel, G., Mojzisch, A., & Krumm, S. (2017). On the boundary conditions of effort losses and effort gains in action teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(12), 1673\u20131685. 10.1037\/apl0000245"},{"issue":"2","key":"r13","series-title":"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2010.12.004","article-title":"When the whole is more than the sum of its parts: Group motivation gains in the wild","volume":"47","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2011","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., & Hertel, G. (2011). When the whole is more than the sum of its parts: Group motivation gains in the wild. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(2), 455\u2013459. 10.1016\/j.jesp.2010.12.004"},{"key":"r14","series-title":"Individual motivation within groups","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X","article-title":"Effort losses and effort gains in sports teams","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., & Hertel, G. (2020). Effort losses and effort gains in sports teams. In S. Karau (Ed.), Individual motivation within groups (pp.\u00a0109\u2013148). Academic Press. 10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X"},{"issue":"1","key":"r15","series-title":"European Review of Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2021.1959125","article-title":"In field settings group members (often) show effort gains instead of social loafing","volume":"33","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2022","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Hertel, G., Torka, A.K., Nohe, C., & Krumm, S. (2022). In field settings group members (often) show effort gains instead of social loafing. European Review of Social Psychology, 33(1), 131\u2013170. 10.1080\/10463283.2021.1959125"},{"issue":"5","key":"r16","series-title":"European Journal of Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.1875","article-title":"\u201cDon\u2019t let the group down\u201d: Facets of instrumentality moderate the motivating effects of groups in a field experiment","volume":"42","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2012","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Krumm, S., Kanthak, J., & Hertel, G. (2012). \u201cDon\u2019t let the group down\u201d: Facets of instrumentality moderate the motivating effects of groups in a field experiment. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(5), 533\u2013538. 10.1002\/ejsp.1875"},{"issue":"5","key":"r17","series-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2020-0036","article-title":"The strength of the situation: Disentangling the situational explanation for effort gains in swimming relays from person-related accounts","volume":"42","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Schleu, J.E., & Nohe, C. (2020). The strength of the situation: Disentangling the situational explanation for effort gains in swimming relays from person-related accounts. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 42(5), 394\u2013406. 10.1123\/jsep.2020-0036"},{"issue":"4","key":"r18","series-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Sozialpsychologie,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1024\/\/0044-3514.31.4.179","article-title":"On the elusive search for motivation gains in groups: Insights from the collective effort model","volume":"31","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., Markus, M.J., & Williams, K.D. (2000). On the elusive search for motivation gains in groups: Insights from the collective effort model. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Sozialpsychologie, 31(4), 179\u2013190. 10.1024\/\/0044-3514.31.4.179"},{"key":"r19","series-title":"Individual motivation within groups","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X","article-title":"Social loafing and motivation gains in groups: An integrative review","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., & Wilhau, A.J. (2020). Social loafing and motivation gains in groups: An integrative review. In S. Karau (Ed.), Individual motivation within groups (pp.\u00a03\u201351). Academic Press. 10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X"},{"issue":"4","key":"r20","series-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.65.4.681","article-title":"Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration","volume":"65","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., & Williams, K.D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 681\u2013706. 10.1037\/0022-3514.65.4.681"},{"issue":"4","key":"r21","series-title":"Group Processes & Intergroup Relations,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430205056466","article-title":"Identifiability, performance feedback and the K\u00f6hler effect","volume":"8","author":"Kerr, N.L.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kerr, N.L., Mess\u00e9, L.A., Park, E.S., & Sambolec, E.J. (2005). Identifiability, performance feedback and the K\u00f6hler effect. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(4), 375\u2013390. 10.1177\/1368430205056466"},{"issue":"2","key":"r22","series-title":"Journal of Management,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206319843985","article-title":"Play it again, Sam! An analysis of constructive replication in the organizational sciences","volume":"47","author":"K\u00f6hler, T.","year":"2021","unstructured":"K\u00f6hler, T., & Cortina, J.M. (2021). Play it again, Sam! An analysis of constructive replication in the organizational sciences. Journal of Management, 47(2), 488\u2013518. 10.1177\/0149206319843985"},{"key":"r23","series-title":"Handbook of psychology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1002\/0471264385.wei1214","article-title":"Work groups and teams in organizations","author":"Kozlowski, S.W.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kozlowski, S.W., & Bell, B.S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In S.W. Kozlowski\u00a0& B.S. Bell (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (pp.\u00a0333\u2013375). Wiley. 10.1002\/0471264385.wei1214"},{"key":"r24","series-title":"Individual free-riding in sequential team competition: Evidence from track and field","author":"Ludes, L.M.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ludes, L.M. (2021). Individual free-riding in sequential team competition: Evidence from track and field\u00a0[Unpublished master thesis]."},{"issue":"4","key":"r25","series-title":"Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026887","article-title":"The K\u00f6hler effect: Motivation gains and losses in real sports groups","volume":"1","author":"Osborn, K.A.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Osborn, K.A., Irwin, B.C., Skogsberg, N.J., & Feltz, D.L. (2012). The K\u00f6hler effect: Motivation gains and losses in real sports groups. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(4), 242\u2013253. 10.1037\/a0026887"},{"key":"r26","series-title":"Performing under pressure. Psychological strategies for sporting success","author":"Perry, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Perry, J. (2020). Performing under pressure. Psychological strategies for sporting success. Routledge."},{"issue":"4","key":"r27","series-title":"Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200290103581","article-title":"Coping responses to failure and success among elite athletes and performing artists","volume":"14","author":"Poczwardowski, A.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Poczwardowski, A.& Conroy, D.E. (2002). Coping responses to failure and success among elite athletes and performing artists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(4), 313\u2013329. 10.1080\/10413200290103581"},{"key":"r28","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.101567","article-title":"Run for the team: An analysis of effort gains in track and field relays","volume":"45","author":"Schleu, J.E.","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schleu, J.E., Mojzisch, A., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2019). Run for the team: An analysis of effort gains in track and field relays. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 45, Article 101567. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.101567"},{"issue":"3","key":"r29","series-title":"Psychological Science,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue","volume":"18","author":"Segerstrom, S.C.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Segerstrom, S.C., & Nes, L.S. (2007). Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue. Psychological Science, 18(3), 275\u2013281. 10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x"},{"issue":"1","key":"r30","series-title":"Psychological Bulletin,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.113.1.67","article-title":"Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis","volume":"113","author":"Shepperd, J.A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Shepperd, J.A. (1993). Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 67\u201381. 10.1037\/0033-2909.113.1.67"},{"key":"r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2160588","author":"Simmons, J.P.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Simmons, J.P., Nelson, L.D., & Simonsohn, U. (2012). A 21 word solution. Dialogue: Theofficial newsletter of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 4\u20137. 10.2139\/ssrn.2160588"},{"issue":"6","key":"r31","series-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2024-0034","article-title":"Social comparison, social indispensability, or both? On the psychological mechanisms underlying effort gains in swimming relays","volume":"46","author":"Torka, A.K.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Torka, A.K., H\u00fcffmeier, J., Fischer, S., & Braun, C. (2024). Social comparison, social indispensability, or both? On the psychological mechanisms underlying effort gains in swimming relays. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 46(6), 341\u2013352. 10.1123\/jsep.2024-0034"},{"issue":"5","key":"r32","series-title":"Psychological Bulletin,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000251","article-title":"Together, everyone achieves more\u2014or, less? An interdisciplinary meta-analysis on effort gains and losses in teams","volume":"147","author":"Torka, A.K.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Torka, A.K., Mazei, J., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2021). Together, everyone achieves more\u2014or, less? An interdisciplinary meta-analysis on effort gains and losses in teams. Psychological Bulletin, 147(5), 504\u2013534. 10.1037\/bul0000251"},{"issue":"8","key":"r33","series-title":"Sports Medicine,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0","article-title":"The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review","volume":"47","author":"Van Cutsem, J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Van Cutsem, J., Marcora, S., De Pauw, K., Bailey, S., Meeusen, R., & Roelands, B. (2017). The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(8), 1569\u20131588. 10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0"},{"key":"r35","series-title":"Work and motivation","author":"Vroom, V.H.","year":"1964","unstructured":"Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley."},{"issue":"3","key":"r36","series-title":"Business Horizons,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2017.01.011","article-title":"What leaders need to know about organizational culture","volume":"60","author":"Warrick, D.D.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Warrick, D.D. (2017). What leaders need to know about organizational culture. Business Horizons, 60(3), 395\u2013404. 10.1016\/j.bushor.2017.01.011"},{"key":"r37","article-title":"4\u2009\u00d7\u2009400 meters relay","year":"2021","unstructured":"World Athletics. (2021). 4\u2009\u00d7\u2009400 meters relay. https:\/\/www.worldathletics.org\/disciplines\/relays\/4x400-metres-relay"},{"issue":"3","key":"r1","series-title":"Organizational Research Methods,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428105278021","article-title":"Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations","volume":"8","author":"Becker, T.E.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Becker, T.E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274\u2013289. 10.1177\/1094428105278021"},{"key":"r2","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102235","article-title":"Larger effort gains in weaker relay swimmers independent of their starting order","volume":"62","author":"Braun, C.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Braun, C., Fischer, S., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2022). Larger effort gains in weaker relay swimmers independent of their starting order. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 62, Article 102235. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102235"},{"key":"r3","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2021.101949","article-title":"Last and fast? A gender-specific analysis of effort gains in swimming relay events across Olympic Games and World Championships during the past 20\u00a0years","volume":"55","author":"Braun, C.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braun, C., Fischer, S., Qiu, X., Limmeroth, J., & Kibele, A. (2021). Last and fast? A gender-specific analysis of effort gains in swimming relay events across Olympic Games and World Championships during the past 20\u00a0years. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 55, Article 101949. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2021.101949"},{"key":"r4","series-title":"The culture code: The secrets of highly successful groups","author":"Coyle, D.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Coyle, D. (2018). The culture code: The secrets of highly successful groups. Bantam Books."},{"issue":"5","key":"r5","series-title":"Small Group Research,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1177\/104649640103200501","article-title":"Do smarter teams do better: A meta-analysis of cognitive ability and team performance","volume":"32","author":"Devine, D.J.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Devine, D.J., & Philips, J.L. (2001). Do smarter teams do better: A meta-analysis of cognitive ability and team performance. Small Group Research, 32(5), 507\u2013532. 10.1177\/104649640103200501"},{"issue":"3","key":"r6","series-title":"Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1006\/obhd.1995.1108","article-title":"Alternatives to difference scores as dependent variables in the study of congruence in organizational research","volume":"64,","author":"Edwards, J.R.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Edwards, J.R. (1995). Alternatives to difference scores as dependent variables in the study of congruence in organizational research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64,(3) 307\u2013324. 10.1006\/obhd.1995.1108"},{"issue":"3","key":"r7","series-title":"Organizational Research Methods,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1177\/109442810143005","article-title":"Ten difference score myths","volume":"4","author":"Edwards, J.R.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Edwards, J.R. (2001). Ten difference score myths. Organizational Research Methods, 4(3), 265\u2013287. 10.1177\/109442810143005"},{"key":"r8","series-title":"Human motivation: A social psychological approach","author":"Geen, R.G.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Geen, R.G. (1995). Human motivation: A social psychological approach. Thomson Brooks\/Cole Publishing Co."},{"issue":"4","key":"r9","series-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.79.4.580","article-title":"Motivation gains in performance groups: Paradigmatic and theoretical developments on the K\u00f6hler effect","volume":"79","author":"Hertel, G.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hertel, G., Kerr, N.L., & Mess\u00e9, L.A. (2000). Motivation gains in performance groups: Paradigmatic and theoretical developments on the K\u00f6hler effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 580\u2013601. 10.1037\/0022-3514.79.4.580"},{"issue":"1","key":"r10","series-title":"International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.24985\/ijass.2013.25.1.33","article-title":"Team identification reduces social loafing and promotes social laboring in cycling","volume":"25","author":"H\u00f8igaard, R.","year":"2013","unstructured":"H\u00f8igaard, R., Boen, F., De Cuyper, B., & Peters, D.M. (2013). Team identification reduces social loafing and promotes social laboring in cycling. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 25(1), 33\u201340. 10.24985\/ijass.2013.25.1.33"},{"key":"r11","series-title":"International Journal of Sport Science,","first-page":"59","article-title":"Identifiability and social loafing: The moderating role of team cohesion","volume":"18","author":"H\u00f8igaard, R.","year":"2006","unstructured":"H\u00f8igaard, R., Tofteland, I., & Ommundsen, Y. (2006). Identifiability and social loafing: The moderating role of team cohesion. International Journal of Sport Science, 18, 59\u201373."},{"issue":"12","key":"r12","series-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1037\/apl0000245","article-title":"On the boundary conditions of effort losses and effort gains in action teams","volume":"102","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Filusch, M., Mazei, J., Hertel, G., Mojzisch, A., & Krumm, S. (2017). On the boundary conditions of effort losses and effort gains in action teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(12), 1673\u20131685. 10.1037\/apl0000245"},{"issue":"2","key":"r13","series-title":"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2010.12.004","article-title":"When the whole is more than the sum of its parts: Group motivation gains in the wild","volume":"47","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2011","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., & Hertel, G. (2011). When the whole is more than the sum of its parts: Group motivation gains in the wild. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(2), 455\u2013459. 10.1016\/j.jesp.2010.12.004"},{"key":"r14","series-title":"Individual motivation within groups","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X","article-title":"Effort losses and effort gains in sports teams","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., & Hertel, G. (2020). Effort losses and effort gains in sports teams. In S. Karau (Ed.), Individual motivation within groups (pp.\u00a0109\u2013148). Academic Press. 10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X"},{"issue":"1","key":"r15","series-title":"European Review of Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2021.1959125","article-title":"In field settings group members (often) show effort gains instead of social loafing","volume":"33","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2022","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Hertel, G., Torka, A.K., Nohe, C., & Krumm, S. (2022). In field settings group members (often) show effort gains instead of social loafing. European Review of Social Psychology, 33(1), 131\u2013170. 10.1080\/10463283.2021.1959125"},{"issue":"5","key":"r16","series-title":"European Journal of Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.1875","article-title":"\u201cDon\u2019t let the group down\u201d: Facets of instrumentality moderate the motivating effects of groups in a field experiment","volume":"42","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2012","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Krumm, S., Kanthak, J., & Hertel, G. (2012). \u201cDon\u2019t let the group down\u201d: Facets of instrumentality moderate the motivating effects of groups in a field experiment. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(5), 533\u2013538. 10.1002\/ejsp.1875"},{"issue":"5","key":"r17","series-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2020-0036","article-title":"The strength of the situation: Disentangling the situational explanation for effort gains in swimming relays from person-related accounts","volume":"42","author":"H\u00fcffmeier, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"H\u00fcffmeier, J., Schleu, J.E., & Nohe, C. (2020). The strength of the situation: Disentangling the situational explanation for effort gains in swimming relays from person-related accounts. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 42(5), 394\u2013406. 10.1123\/jsep.2020-0036"},{"issue":"4","key":"r18","series-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Sozialpsychologie,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1024\/\/0044-3514.31.4.179","article-title":"On the elusive search for motivation gains in groups: Insights from the collective effort model","volume":"31","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., Markus, M.J., & Williams, K.D. (2000). On the elusive search for motivation gains in groups: Insights from the collective effort model. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Sozialpsychologie, 31(4), 179\u2013190. 10.1024\/\/0044-3514.31.4.179"},{"key":"r19","series-title":"Individual motivation within groups","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X","article-title":"Social loafing and motivation gains in groups: An integrative review","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., & Wilhau, A.J. (2020). Social loafing and motivation gains in groups: An integrative review. In S. Karau (Ed.), Individual motivation within groups (pp.\u00a03\u201351). Academic Press. 10.1016\/B978-0-12-849867-5.00001-X"},{"issue":"4","key":"r20","series-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.65.4.681","article-title":"Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration","volume":"65","author":"Karau, S.J.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Karau, S.J., & Williams, K.D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 681\u2013706. 10.1037\/0022-3514.65.4.681"},{"issue":"4","key":"r21","series-title":"Group Processes & Intergroup Relations,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430205056466","article-title":"Identifiability, performance feedback and the K\u00f6hler effect","volume":"8","author":"Kerr, N.L.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kerr, N.L., Mess\u00e9, L.A., Park, E.S., & Sambolec, E.J. (2005). Identifiability, performance feedback and the K\u00f6hler effect. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(4), 375\u2013390. 10.1177\/1368430205056466"},{"issue":"2","key":"r22","series-title":"Journal of Management,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206319843985","article-title":"Play it again, Sam! An analysis of constructive replication in the organizational sciences","volume":"47","author":"K\u00f6hler, T.","year":"2021","unstructured":"K\u00f6hler, T., & Cortina, J.M. (2021). Play it again, Sam! An analysis of constructive replication in the organizational sciences. Journal of Management, 47(2), 488\u2013518. 10.1177\/0149206319843985"},{"key":"r23","series-title":"Handbook of psychology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1002\/0471264385.wei1214","article-title":"Work groups and teams in organizations","author":"Kozlowski, S.W.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kozlowski, S.W., & Bell, B.S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In S.W. Kozlowski\u00a0& B.S. Bell (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (pp.\u00a0333\u2013375). Wiley. 10.1002\/0471264385.wei1214"},{"key":"r24","series-title":"Individual free-riding in sequential team competition: Evidence from track and field","author":"Ludes, L.M.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ludes, L.M. (2021). Individual free-riding in sequential team competition: Evidence from track and field\u00a0[Unpublished master thesis]."},{"issue":"4","key":"r25","series-title":"Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026887","article-title":"The K\u00f6hler effect: Motivation gains and losses in real sports groups","volume":"1","author":"Osborn, K.A.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Osborn, K.A., Irwin, B.C., Skogsberg, N.J., & Feltz, D.L. (2012). The K\u00f6hler effect: Motivation gains and losses in real sports groups. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(4), 242\u2013253. 10.1037\/a0026887"},{"key":"r26","series-title":"Performing under pressure. Psychological strategies for sporting success","author":"Perry, J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Perry, J. (2020). Performing under pressure. Psychological strategies for sporting success. Routledge."},{"issue":"4","key":"r27","series-title":"Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200290103581","article-title":"Coping responses to failure and success among elite athletes and performing artists","volume":"14","author":"Poczwardowski, A.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Poczwardowski, A.& Conroy, D.E. (2002). Coping responses to failure and success among elite athletes and performing artists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(4), 313\u2013329. 10.1080\/10413200290103581"},{"key":"r28","series-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.101567","article-title":"Run for the team: An analysis of effort gains in track and field relays","volume":"45","author":"Schleu, J.E.","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schleu, J.E., Mojzisch, A., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2019). Run for the team: An analysis of effort gains in track and field relays. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 45, Article 101567. 10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.101567"},{"issue":"3","key":"r29","series-title":"Psychological Science,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue","volume":"18","author":"Segerstrom, S.C.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Segerstrom, S.C., & Nes, L.S. (2007). Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue. Psychological Science, 18(3), 275\u2013281. 10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x"},{"issue":"1","key":"r30","series-title":"Psychological Bulletin,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.113.1.67","article-title":"Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis","volume":"113","author":"Shepperd, J.A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Shepperd, J.A. (1993). Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 67\u201381. 10.1037\/0033-2909.113.1.67"},{"key":"r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2160588","author":"Simmons, J.P.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Simmons, J.P., Nelson, L.D., & Simonsohn, U. (2012). A 21 word solution. Dialogue: Theofficial newsletter of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 4\u20137. 10.2139\/ssrn.2160588"},{"issue":"6","key":"r31","series-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2024-0034","article-title":"Social comparison, social indispensability, or both? On the psychological mechanisms underlying effort gains in swimming relays","volume":"46","author":"Torka, A.K.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Torka, A.K., H\u00fcffmeier, J., Fischer, S., & Braun, C. (2024). Social comparison, social indispensability, or both? On the psychological mechanisms underlying effort gains in swimming relays. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 46(6), 341\u2013352. 10.1123\/jsep.2024-0034"},{"issue":"5","key":"r32","series-title":"Psychological Bulletin,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000251","article-title":"Together, everyone achieves more\u2014or, less? An interdisciplinary meta-analysis on effort gains and losses in teams","volume":"147","author":"Torka, A.K.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Torka, A.K., Mazei, J., & H\u00fcffmeier, J. (2021). Together, everyone achieves more\u2014or, less? An interdisciplinary meta-analysis on effort gains and losses in teams. Psychological Bulletin, 147(5), 504\u2013534. 10.1037\/bul0000251"},{"issue":"8","key":"r33","series-title":"Sports Medicine,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0","article-title":"The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review","volume":"47","author":"Van Cutsem, J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Van Cutsem, J., Marcora, S., De Pauw, K., Bailey, S., Meeusen, R., & Roelands, B. (2017). The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(8), 1569\u20131588. 10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0"},{"key":"r35","series-title":"Work and motivation","author":"Vroom, V.H.","year":"1964","unstructured":"Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley."},{"issue":"3","key":"r36","series-title":"Business Horizons,","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bushor.2017.01.011","article-title":"What leaders need to know about organizational culture","volume":"60","author":"Warrick, D.D.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Warrick, D.D. (2017). What leaders need to know about organizational culture. Business Horizons, 60(3), 395\u2013404. 10.1016\/j.bushor.2017.01.011"},{"key":"r37","article-title":"4\u2009\u00d7\u2009400 meters relay","year":"2021","unstructured":"World Athletics. (2021). 4\u2009\u00d7\u2009400 meters relay. https:\/\/www.worldathletics.org\/disciplines\/relays\/4x400-metres-relay"}],"container-title":["Journal of Sport &amp; Exercise Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.humankinetics.com\/view\/journals\/jsep\/48\/1\/article-p22.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.humankinetics.com\/downloadpdf\/journals\/jsep\/48\/1\/article-p22.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.humankinetics.com\/downloadpdf\/journals\/jsep\/48\/1\/article-p22.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T23:43:11Z","timestamp":1769125391000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.humankinetics.com\/view\/journals\/jsep\/48\/1\/article-p22.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1123\/jsep.2025-0001","relation":{},"ISSN":["0895-2779","1543-2904"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0895-2779","type":"print"},{"value":"1543-2904","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]]}}}