{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T16:01:59Z","timestamp":1781884919799,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)","issue":"12","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["award358154"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["award358154"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IOS-1557672"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IOS-1557672"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["award358156"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["award358156"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DGE-IGERT 1144591"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DGE-IGERT 1144591"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000185","name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["award358155"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["award358155"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000185","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000185","name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W911NF-11-1-0079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W911NF-11-1-0079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000185","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci. Robot."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Biohybrid systems exploit the unique features of living cells or tissues for actuating artificial devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,30]],"date-time":"2017-11-30T01:57:51Z","timestamp":1512007071000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":502,"title":["Biohybrid actuators for robotics: A review of devices actuated by living cells"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8797-3742","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Ricotti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, Pontedera, Pisa, Italy."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1782-7373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barry","family":"Trimmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02153, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3338-5456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam W.","family":"Feinberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8657-9815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ritu","family":"Raman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin K.","family":"Parker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7225-9180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rashid","family":"Bashir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8249-3854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Metin","family":"Sitti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max-Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylvain","family":"Martel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NanoRobotics Laboratory, Department of Computer and Software Engineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, Quebec, Canada."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Dario","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, Pontedera, Pisa, Italy."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Menciassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, Pontedera, Pisa, Italy."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aah3690"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Siciliano O. Khatib Eds. Springer Handbook of Robotics (Springer ed. 2 2016).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32552-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2007.380641"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.200290009"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2015.2501019"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2015.2448277"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1250\/ast.31.115"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.200305712"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-012-9697-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201400384"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C3LC50989C"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/aa5e5f"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-013-0902-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201700496"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-071114-040632"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364908100924"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/4581121a"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-012-9696-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4801810"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep32135"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep03394"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b02082"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(03)01194-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2016.09.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b03207"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2016.137"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep28717"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201302544"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-1-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.09.123"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V. A. Webster K. J. Chapin E. L. Hawley J. M. Patel O. Akkus H. J. Chiel R. D. Quinn Aplysia californica as a novel source of material for biohybrid robots and organic machines in Biomimetic and Biohybrid Systems. Living Machines 2016. Lecture Notes in Computer Science N. Lepora A. Mura M. Mangan P. Verschure M. Desmulliez T. Prescott Eds. (Springer 2016) pp. 365\u2013374.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42417-0_33"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V. A. Webster F. R. Young J. M. Patel G. N. Scariano O. Akkus U. A. Gurkan H. J. Chiel R.D. Quinn 3D-printed biohybrid robots powered by neuromuscular tissue circuits from Aplysia californica in Biomimetic and Biohybrid Systems. Living Machines 2017. Lecture Notes in Computer Science M. Mangan M. Cutkosky A. Mura P. Verschure T. Prescott N. Lepora Eds. (Springer 2017) pp. 475\u2013486.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-63537-8_40"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat1308"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/b515149j"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/b703900j"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/b705367c"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1146885"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2269"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/nn305559j"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201501379"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201501284"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00857"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4081"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-061010-113817"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf4292"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/B809299K"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038274"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c3lc50490e"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2015.0014"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1290\/1071-2690(2000)036<0327:EAICPO>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-008-9247-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10047-009-0457-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-009-9379-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-010-9477-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C4LC01471E"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.05.071"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-010-9435-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C0LC00364F"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2012.0181"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071707"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2013.04.036"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-016-1592-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/10\/5\/056001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/11\/3\/036012"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep26687"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c2lc40338b"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1401577111"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1516139113"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201700030"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2016.185"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/micronano.2017.15"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031598"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA08438A"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. L. Pons Emerging Actuator Technologies: A Micromechatronic Approach (John Wiley & Sons 2005).","DOI":"10.1002\/0470091991"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/19\/2\/022001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1529\/biophysj.104.048157"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35000233"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_79_2","unstructured":"I. W. Hunter J. M. Hollerbach J. Ballantyne A comparative analysis of actuator technologies for robotics in Robotics Review 2 (MIT Press 1991) pp. 299\u2013342."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0957-4158(93)90002-J"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_81_2","unstructured":"R.G. Dennis H. Herr Engineered muscle actuators: Cells and tissues in Biomimetics: Biologically Inspired Technologies Y. Bar-Cohen Ed. (Taylor & Francis 2005) chap. 9."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms12263"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4569"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c2ra01318e"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_85_2","unstructured":"M. Sitti Mobile Microrobotics (MIT Press 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_86_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.02.040"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_87_2","first-page":"71","article-title":"Differentiation of cardiomyocytes from human pluripotent stem cells using monolayer culture","volume":"10","author":"Batalov I.","year":"2015","unstructured":"I. Batalov, A. W. Feinberg, Differentiation of cardiomyocytes from human pluripotent stem cells using monolayer culture. Biomark Insights 10 (suppl. 1), 71\u201376 (2015).","journal-title":"Biomark Insights"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_88_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/nl060060o"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_89_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200405004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2017.03.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobme.2017.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_92_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3357"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_93_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500758"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_94_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3413"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b08202"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.2006.12.3149"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.10.038"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_98_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/7\/3\/035003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-070214-020901"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_100_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac5082"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_101_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/elsc.201600138"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02350299"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_103_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1464793102006024"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_104_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2003.12.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_105_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1910(00)00153-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_106_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1910(83)90146-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_107_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3570358"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_108_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/347472a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_109_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08799"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_110_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.02.032"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_111_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2007.02.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_112_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.11.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_113_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2016.09.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_114_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2016.06.027"}],"container-title":["Science Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]],"date-time":"2024-01-16T12:56:01Z","timestamp":1705409761000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,22]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,22]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq0495","relation":{},"ISSN":["2470-9476"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2470-9476","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,22]]},"article-number":"eaaq0495"}}