{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T20:05:57Z","timestamp":1781381157787,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)","issue":"105","content-domain":{"domain":["www.science.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sci. Robot."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Modular microrobotics can potentially address many information-intensive microtasks in medicine, manufacturing, and the environment. However, surface area has limited the natural powering, communication, functional integration, and self-assembly of smart mass-fabricated modular robotic devices at small scales. We demonstrate the integrated self-folding and self-rolling of functionalized patterned interior and exterior membrane surfaces resulting in programmable, self-assembling, intercommunicating, and self-locomoting micromodules (smartlets \u2264 1 cubic millimeter) with interior chambers for onboard buoyancy control. The microrobotic divers, with 360\u00b0 solar harvesting rolls, functioned with sufficient ambient power for communication and programmed locomotion in water via electrolysis. The interior folding faces carried rigid microcomponents, including silicon chiplets (Si chiplets) as microprocessors and micro\u2013light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for communication. The exterior faces were able to engage in specific patterned docking interactions between smartlets. The heterogeneous integration is mass producible and affordable through two-dimensional (2D)\u2013automated lithography and microchiplet bump-bonding processes, here shown to be compatible with subsequent autonomous 3D folding and rolling. The robotic modules functioned in natural aqueous environments, and the technology was analyzed as scalable down to microscopic dimensions. Selectively addressed communication with individual smartlets was enhanced via frequency-specific optical signals and enabled precise control, allowing each smartlet to be activated independently within a collective system. The work remodels modular microrobotics closer to the surface-rich modular autonomy of biological cells and provides an economical platform for microscopic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adu6007","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T17:58:23Z","timestamp":1755712703000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.34133\/aaas_crossmark","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Si chiplet\u2013controlled 3D modular microrobots with smart communication in natural aqueous environments"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5235-5370","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yeji","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2962-5226","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vineeth K.","family":"Bandari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3408-7357","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"John S.","family":"McCaskill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"European Centre for Living Technology (ECLT), Ca\u2019 Bottacin, Dorsoduro 3911, Venice 30123, Italy."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pranathi","family":"Adluri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3127-1527","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniil","family":"Karnaushenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6818-4809","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dmitriy D.","family":"Karnaushenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9503-8367","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Oliver G.","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany."},{"name":"European Centre for Living Technology (ECLT), Ca\u2019 Bottacin, Dorsoduro 3911, Venice 30123, Italy."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a000422"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abq2296"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-020-0384-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43154-023-00106-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.ade9247"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43154-024-00109-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202300311"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. S. Iyer B. Vaisband \u201cHeterogeneous integration at scale\u201d in Advances in Semiconductor Technologies (Wiley 2022) pp. 1\u201324.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119869610.ch1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43939-024-00074-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02124-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3029432"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSI.2017.2750905"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","unstructured":"T. Maeke J. S. Matsarskaia D. Funke P. Mayr A. Sharma U. Tangen J. Oehm Autonomous programmable microscopic electronic lablets optimized with digital control. arXiv:2405.20110 [cs.RO] (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c0cs00078g"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.35848\/1347-4065\/ac49fa"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202306344"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","first-page":"44","article-title":"Smart dust: Communicating with a cubic-millimeter computer","volume":"34","author":"Warneke B.","year":"2001","unstructured":"B. Warneke, M. Last, B. Liebowitz, K. S. J. Pister, Smart dust: Communicating with a cubic-millimeter computer. Computertomographie 34, 44\u201351 (2001).","journal-title":"Computertomographie"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.06.034"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04363-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","unstructured":"J. S. McCaskill T. Maeke D. Funke P. Mayr A. Sharma P. F. Wagler J. Oehm Design and fabrication of autonomous electronic lablets for chemical control. arXiv:2405.15608 [cs.RO] (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-020-0309-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201503696"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29802-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.268.5218.1735"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202002229"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202313327"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201203348"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04645-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T. Xiao-qing Z. Shuai Y. Yang Z. Shu-ling W. Xiao-chuan \u201cMicro-scale RF energy harvesting and power management for passive IoT devices\u201d in 2019 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Power Engineering (REPE) (IEEE 2019) pp. 54\u201358.","DOI":"10.1109\/REPE48501.2019.9025126"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1919677117"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202307664"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1557\/s43577-024-00665-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chip.2022.100034"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03625-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202000284"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","unstructured":"P. McLellan \u201cHow to make chiplets a viable market \u201d Cadence Blogs 8 February 2023; https:\/\/community.cadence.com\/cadence_blogs_8\/b\/breakfast-bytes\/posts\/how-to-make-chiplets-a-viable-market."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","unstructured":"P. Vijay V. Sumaria \u201cAdvancement in P3HT PCBM solar cells the most efficient polymer photovoltaic cell\u201d in 10th Annual Session of Students\u2019 Chemical Engineering Congress (SCHEMCON) (Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers 2014) pp. 1\u201314."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","unstructured":"Worldsemi WS2812B intelligent control LED integrated light source; http:\/\/world-semi.com\/ws2812-family\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/mi15040468"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","first-page":"20","article-title":"Recent advances in one-dimensional micro\/nanomotors: Fabrication, propulsion and application","volume":"15","author":"Zheng Y.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Y. Zheng, H. Zhao, Y. Cai, B. Jurado-S\u00e1nchez, R. Dong, Recent advances in one-dimensional micro\/nanomotors: Fabrication, propulsion and application. Nanomicro Lett. 15, 20 (2023).","journal-title":"Nanomicro Lett."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202308580"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29882-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44172-022-00034-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.3.984"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.276.5310.233"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1910332116"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.1c10308"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-023-00641-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s19081831"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Sharma J. S. McCaskill \u201cAutonomous lablet locomotion and active docking by sensomotory electroosmotic drive\u201d in Proceedings of the ECAL 2015: The 13th European Conference on Artificial Life (International Society for Artificial Life 2015) pp. 456\u2013462.","DOI":"10.7551\/978-0-262-33027-5-ch081"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cphc.202000162"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsearthspacechem.1c00220"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.7b12097"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.2c01579"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.2c01599"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaem.9b00779"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D2SE01517J"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202100271"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44287-024-00081-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-010510-103409"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-control-060117-104947"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C2NR32554C"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201707228"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0052669"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2015.11.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-024-01159-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. V. Mirkin S. Amemiya Eds. Nanoelectrochemistry (CRC Press ed. 1 2015).","DOI":"10.1201\/b18066"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-8984\/25\/18\/184002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.4c09521"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsenergylett.4c01238"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202402105"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enrev.2023.100015"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smsc.202300109"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catcom.2016.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2023.114136"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.202000313"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202100004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14090417"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-106-6_5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-008-0399-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/36\/20\/023"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201503127"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2011.4511"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/oph-2015-0006"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_86_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10854-015-2869-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_87_2","first-page":"289","article-title":"Microscale chemically reactive electronic agents","volume":"8","author":"McCaskill J. S.","year":"2012","unstructured":"J. S. McCaskill, G. Von Kiedrowsk, J. \u00d6hm, P. Mayr, L. Cronin, I. Willner, A. Herrmann, S. Rasmussen, F. Stepanek, N. H. Packard, P. R. Wills, Microscale chemically reactive electronic agents. Int. J. Unconv. Comput. 8, 289\u2013299 (2012).","journal-title":"Int. J. Unconv. Comput."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_88_2","unstructured":"European Environment Agency \u201cNutrients in freshwater in Europe\u201d (2024); https:\/\/eea.europa.eu\/en\/analysis\/indicators\/nutrients-in-freshwater-in-europe."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_89_2","unstructured":"European Environment Agency \u201cEuropean waters getting cleaner but big challenges remain\u201d (2018); https:\/\/networknature.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/images\/EEA%20water%20report.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s42825-021-00054-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033583521000019"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_92_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.7b00405"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_93_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1112411108"}],"container-title":["Science Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1126\/scirobotics.adu6007","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T17:58:47Z","timestamp":1755712727000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/scirobotics.adu6007"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"105","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1126\/scirobotics.adu6007"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scirobotics.adu6007","relation":{},"ISSN":["2470-9476"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2470-9476","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-11-13","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-22","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-20","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"eadu6007"}}