{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,12]],"date-time":"2024-09-12T12:35:23Z","timestamp":1726144523026},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)","issue":"4124","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1974,2,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The general picture that emerges from this study is that the woman microbiologist, upon entering the professional job market, faces (i) slower advancement; (ii) restricted extramural recognition; and (iii) fewer positions of a supervisory or administrative nature, when compared to men. Most striking is the salary differential, which increases with increasing educational level, with increasing rank, and with increasing seniority.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>From the beginning of her professional training, the woman microbiologist feels handicapped by lack of encouragement and proper role models. She generally receives little advice regarding her professional future and rarely feels pushed to take the most challenging position. Should she be married, she feels that her mobility is severely restricted. Even though the subjective nature of these feelings may be interpreted as projections of failure, subtle inducements for women to stay at lower levels may well exist, in addition to more objective measurements, such as lower salary levels and slower professional advancement.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>Despite these handicaps, professional women continue to work. As a group, they work for the same reasons that men do, they work as long and as hard as men do, and they remain at their positions as long as men do. Women and men rate themselves equally as to job performance, degree of independence, and publication rate.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>On the basis of this study, it should not be surprising that women professionals are less visible than men and that only a small proportion of women become what is considered successful by the usual external criteria. If women were to receive continued encouragement, scientific contact, and professional recognition at each stage of their professional lives, they would undoubtedly become more visible.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>The lack of encouragement and self-confidence leading to isolation, which then leads to lack of recognition, is a vicious circle that must be broken for the woman professional. This can be done most easily for the beginning student. For older women, there must be increased placement in positions of responsibility and visibility. Protective practices that discourage women from entering arenas of competition can only be viewed as discrimination on the basis of sex, since women professionals are rarely given the choice between being protected and being independent.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>Unexpectedly, this study illustrates the lower status of another group of individuals who are considered deviants from the expected roles of the established society\u2014single men with doctorates, who were found in the positions predominately filled by women.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>In conclusion, this study of a select group of scientists probably has general applicability to all women professionals in their roles vis--vis men. Examination and documentation of discriminatory practices based on sex points to the areas in which women must direct their demands for equality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/science.183.4124.488","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,10,5]],"date-time":"2006-10-05T15:10:48Z","timestamp":1160061048000},"page":"488-494","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Status of Women Microbiologists"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"183","author":[{"given":"Eva Ruth","family":"Kashket","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of physiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mary Louise","family":"Robbins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20005"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Loretta","family":"Leive","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolic, and Digestive Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20014"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alice S.","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard Medical School"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","first-page":"173","volume":"38","year":"1972","unstructured":"ASM NEWS 38: 173 (1972).","journal-title":"ASM NEWS"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","first-page":"34","volume":"50","year":"1972","unstructured":"CHEMICAL & ENGINEERING NEWS 50: 34 (1972).","journal-title":"CHEMICAL & ENGINEERING NEWS"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.175.4018.127"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","unstructured":"Astin H. S. The Woman Doctorate in America: Origin Career and Family (1969)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2307\/145131","volume":"3","year":"1968","unstructured":"BAYER, A.E., SEX DIFFERENCES IN ACADEMIC RANK AND SALARY AMONG SCIENCE DOCTORATES IN TEACHING, JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES 3: 191 (1968).","journal-title":"JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","first-page":"332","volume":"20","year":"1968","unstructured":"FISCHER, A, AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST 20: 332 (1968).","journal-title":"AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","first-page":"22","volume":"21","year":"1970","unstructured":"GLANCY, D.J., HARVARD LAW SCHOOL BULLETIN 21: 22 (1970).","journal-title":"HARVARD LAW SCHOOL BULLETIN"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","first-page":"57","volume":"37","year":"1971","unstructured":"LEIVE, L, ASM NEWS 37: 57 (1971).","journal-title":"ASM NEWS"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","unstructured":"Lopak C. Women in Medicine (1969)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","unstructured":"Nie N. H. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (1970)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","first-page":"34","volume":"37","year":"1971","unstructured":"ROBBINS, M.L., ASM NEWS 37: 34 (1971).","journal-title":"ASM NEWS"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","first-page":"1","volume":"5","year":"1970","unstructured":"ROSSI, A.S., STATUS OF WOMEN IN GRADUATE DEPARTMENTS OF SOCIOLOGY, 1968-1969, AMERICAN SOCIOLOGIST 5: 1 (1970).","journal-title":"AMERICAN SOCIOLOGIST"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","unstructured":"Rossi A. S. Women and the Scientific Profession (1965)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","first-page":"127","volume":"60","year":"1967","unstructured":"SIMON, R.J., JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN 60: 127 (1967).","journal-title":"JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.170.3956.413"}],"container-title":["Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1126\/science.183.4124.488","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,11]],"date-time":"2024-01-11T20:10:53Z","timestamp":1705003853000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/science.183.4124.488"}},"subtitle":["A study of microbiologists based on objective and subjective criteria is presented."],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1974,2,8]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4124","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1974,2,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1126\/science.183.4124.488"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.183.4124.488","relation":{},"ISSN":["0036-8075","1095-9203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0036-8075","type":"print"},{"value":"1095-9203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1974,2,8]]}}}