{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T21:24:21Z","timestamp":1790371461538,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)","issue":"5437","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Tectonics, volcanism, and climate on Venus may be strongly coupled. Large excursions in surface temperature predicted to follow a global or near-global volcanic event diffuse into the interior and introduce thermal stresses of a magnitude sufficient to influence widespread tectonic deformation. This sequence of events accounts for the timing and many of the characteristics of deformation in the ridged plains of Venus, the most widely preserved volcanic terrain on the planet.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5437.87","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,27]],"date-time":"2002-07-27T09:50:55Z","timestamp":1027763455000},"page":"87-90","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["Climate Change as a Regulator of Tectonics on Venus"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"286","author":[{"given":"Sean C.","family":"Solomon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark A.","family":"Bullock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 426, Boulder, CO 80302, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David H.","family":"Grinspoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 426, Boulder, CO 80302, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13257","DOI":"10.1029\/92JE01246","volume":"97","author":"Schaber G. G.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Schaber G. G., et al., J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13257 (1992);","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strom R. G. Schaber G. G. Dawson D. D. 99 10899 (1994).","DOI":"10.1029\/94JE00388"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. J. Phillips et al. ibid. 97 15921 (1992).","DOI":"10.1029\/92JE02288"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","unstructured":"W. B. McKinnon K. J. Zahnle B. A. Ivanov H. J. Melosh in Venus II S. W. Bougher D. M. Hunten R. J. Phillips Eds. (Univ. Ariz. Press Tucson AZ 1997) pp. 969\u20131014."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13199","DOI":"10.1029\/92JE01418","volume":"97","author":"Solomon S. C.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Solomon S. C., et al., J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13199 (1992).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1997.5721","volume":"129","author":"Sandwell D. T.","year":"1997","unstructured":"Sandwell D. T., Johnson C. L., Bilotti F., Suppe J., Icarus 129, 232 (1997).","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilotti F. Suppe J. 139 137 (1999).","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1999.6092"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1029\/96GL00975","volume":"23","author":"Basilevsky A. T.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Basilevsky A. T., Head J. W., Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 1497 (1996).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"___ J. Geophys. Res. 103 8531 (1998).","DOI":"10.1029\/98JE00487"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(1998)026<0035:SOTDIT>2.3.CO;2","volume":"26","author":"Head J. W.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Head J. W., Basilevsky A. T., Geology 26, 35 (1998).","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7521","DOI":"10.1029\/95JE03862","volume":"101","author":"Bullock M. A.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Bullock M. A., Grinspoon D. H., J. Geophys. Res. 101, 7521 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","unstructured":"___ in preparation."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","first-page":"243","volume":"28","author":"Collins G. C.","year":"1997","unstructured":"Collins G. C., Head J. W., Ivanov M. A., Basilevsky A. T., Lunar Planet. Sci. 28, 243 (1997).","journal-title":"Lunar Planet. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1029\/93GL02635","volume":"20","author":"McGill G. E.","year":"1993","unstructured":"McGill G. E., Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 2047 (1993).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1996.0159","volume":"123","author":"Hansen V. L.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hansen V. L., Willis J. J., Icarus 123, 296 (1996);","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guest J. E. Stofan E. R. 139 55 (1999).","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1999.6091"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","first-page":"1192","volume":"30","author":"Kreslavsky M. A.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Kreslavsky M. A., Head J. W., Lunar Planet. Sci. 30, 1192 (1999).","journal-title":"Lunar Planet. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14861","DOI":"10.1029\/96JE01245","volume":"101","author":"Ivanov M. A.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Ivanov M. A., Head J. W., J. Geophys. Res. 101, 14861 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/93RG02508","volume":"32","author":"Coffin M. F.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Coffin M. F., Eldholm O., Rev. Geophys. 32, 1 (1994).","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","first-page":"1653","volume":"29","author":"Ivanov M. A.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Ivanov M. A., Head J. W., Lunar Planet. Sci. 29, 1653 (1998).","journal-title":"Lunar Planet. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1038\/363428a0","volume":"363","author":"Grinspoon D. H.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Grinspoon D. H., Nature 363, 428 (1993).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","unstructured":"The Venus climate model (11) tracks the evolution of atmospheric and surface temperatures in response to planetary-scale processes that affect the atmospheric abundances of SO 2 and H 2 O. Atmospheric temperatures for any combination of the nine most radiatively active species are calculated with a spectrally resolved multiple-scattering radiative-transfer algorithm for seeking the state of radiative-convective equilibrium for the Venus atmosphere. A cloud chemical and microphysical model for the number densities vertical distribution and composition of sulfuric acid\u2013water aerosols as functions of atmospheric abundances of SO 2 and H 2 O is coupled to the radiative transfer calculations [(11);"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1994.1077","volume":"109","author":"Krasnopolsky V. A.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Krasnopolsky V. A., Pollack J. B., Icarus 109, 58 (1994);","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_4","unstructured":"]. Volcanic outgassing accompanying plains emplacement has been represented as a step followed by an exponential decay with a characteristic lifetime of 100 My; the integrated volcanic flux is taken to be equivalent to a global layer of lavas 500 m thick. The total decay time is longer than the probable eruption interval for the ridged plains but the tail of the exponential decay can be regarded as representing younger plains units of more modest extent (7\u20139). We assume that the average SO 2 content of plains-forming magmas on Venus can be approximated by a typical terrestrial abundance 0.2% by weight. We adopt 50 ppm as the average water abundance in the magma a value derived from the exospheric escape rate of H (19) and the estimated recent volcanic flux ["},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.1029\/93GL02505","volume":"20","author":"Bullock M. A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Bullock M. A., Grinspoon D. H., Head J. W., Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 2147 (1993);","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_6","unstructured":"]. Atmospheric water abundances evolve as a result of volcanic outgassing and exospheric escape of hydrogen. We assume that the loss of H to space is diffusion limited so that the loss rate is dependent only on the hydrogen mixing ratio at the exobase. The adopted atmospheric residence time for H is 160 My a mid-range value for Venus (19). Atmospheric SO 2 abundances are affected by volcanic outgassing and by heterogeneous chemical reactions with surface and near-surface material. We have assumed that the dominant reaction of SO 2 is with carbonates to form anhydrite and we adapted kinetic data for this reaction ["},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/337055a0","volume":"337","author":"Fegley B.","year":"1989","unstructured":"Fegley B., Prinn R. G., Nature 337, 55 (1989);","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_8","unstructured":"] in a reaction-diffusion formalism to account for the fact that atmospheric SO 2 must diffuse to layers of unreacted carbonate ["},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1994.1012","volume":"107","author":"Bullock M. A.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Bullock M. A., Stoker C. R., McKay C. P., Zent A. P., Icarus 107, 142 (1994);","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_10","unstructured":"]. Calculations of the evolution of atmospheric SO 2 and H 2 O abundances and surface temperature were performed at intervals of 50 My for the results shown here; for a similar model (11) a time step of 25 My yielded temperature variations within 1 to 2% of those with a 50-My time step. At each time step and hence atmospheric composition the state of the clouds and the radiative-convective equilibrium temperature structure of the atmosphere was determined with the coupled model for clouds and atmospheric radiative transfer."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","unstructured":"D. L. Turcotte and G. Schubert Geodynamics (Wiley New York 1982) pp. 158\u2013162."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_23_2","unstructured":"For a step change T 1 in surface temperature at time t = 0 the lithospheric temperature at depth z is given by T ( z t ) = T 1 erfc( z ') where erfc is the complementary error function z ' is z \/(4\u03ba t ) 0.5 and \u03ba is thermal diffusivity (21)."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_2","unstructured":"We assume that the variation in surface temperature T s may be described by the piecewise constant function: T s = T 0 for time t < 0 and T s = T 0 + T i for ( i \u22121)\u0394 t \u2264 t \u2264 i\u0394 t i = 1 N ; where \u0394 t is a time increment shorter than some characteristic diffusion time and t = 0 corresponds to the onset of the plains-forming event. The change in internal temperature at time t = n \u0394 t is then ["},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.2475\/ajs.246.12.729","volume":"246","author":"Birch F.","year":"1948","unstructured":"Birch F., Am. J. Sci. 246, 729 (1948);","journal-title":"Am. J. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_4","unstructured":"]  \nT(z t)=T0+\u03a3iTi[erf{z\/[4\u03ba(t\u2212i\u0394t)]0.5}\n\u2212erf(z\/{4\u03ba[t\u2212(i\u22121)\u0394t]}0.5)]where erf is the error function (21) and \u03a3 i implies summation over i from 1 to n. This climate-driven variation in internal temperature will be superposed on the steady increase in temperature with increasing depth associated with long-term heat flow from the planetary interior."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_25_2","unstructured":"The horizontal thermal stress in a free elastic plate resulting from a temperature field T ( z ) ignoring plate bending is \u03c3 =\u2009\u2212\u03b1 E \/[3(1\u2009\u2212\u2009\u03bd)][ T \u2009\u2212\u2009(1\/ L )\u222b T ( z ) dz ] where \u03b1 is the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion E is Young's modulus \u03bd is Poisson's ratio the integral is over the thickness L of the plate or lithosphere and \u03c3 is negative under compression [S. P. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier Theory of Elasticity (McGraw-Hill New York ed. 3 1970) pp. 433\u2013436]. The thermal stress at the surface z = 0 is then given by  \n\u03c3(t)=\u2212\u03b1T1E\/[3(1\u2212\u03bd)]\n{1\u2212[1\u2212exp(\u2212\u03bb2)]\/(\u03bb\u03c00.5)\u2212erfc(\u03bb)}where \u03bb = L \/(4\u03ba t ) 0.5 . For a surface temperature described by a series of step functions the thermal stress is given by a summation of expressions similar to that above with appropriate shifts in the time since each step change. For the calculations in this report the surface temperature variation was approximated by step changes spaced 1 My apart in time and we assumed that \u03b1 = 3 \u00d7 10 \u22125 K \u22121 E = 100 GPa \u03bd = 0.25 L = 100 km and \u03ba = 1 mm 2 s \u22121 ."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10883","DOI":"10.1029\/93JE00691","volume":"98","author":"Schultz R. A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Schultz R. A., J. Geophys. Res. 98, 10883 (1993).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kreslavsky M. A. Basilevsky A. T. 103 11103 (1998).","DOI":"10.1029\/98JE00360"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_2","first-page":"1867","volume":"30","author":"Hashimoto G. L.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Hashimoto G. L., Abe Y., Lunar Planet. Sci. 30, 1867 (1999).","journal-title":"Lunar Planet. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_2","unstructured":"Outgassing twice as much SO 2 and H 2 O as in the model of Fig. 2 would result first in the formation of massive sulfuric acid\u2013water clouds that initially cool the surface by 30 to 40 K in the first 150 My (11). Subsequent loss of the larger atmospheric inventories of SO 2 and H 2 O results in surface temperature excursions that are larger than but qualitatively similar to those in Fig. 2. Warming by about 100 K occurs between 150 and 350 My after the start of the model and a cooling roughly analogous to that shown at 450 My in Fig. 2 occurs instead at 600 My for the larger eruption. Outgassing half as much SO 2 and H 2 O as in the model of Fig. 2 results in temperature excursions that are slightly smaller in magnitude (the early warming is by 45 K instead of 60 K). The rapid loss of clouds and subsequent cooling occurs about 100 My sooner than in Fig. 2."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A585","DOI":"10.1029\/JB088iB01p00585","volume":"88","author":"Turcotte D. L.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Turcotte D. L., J. Geophys. Res. 88, A585 (1983).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1126\/science.279.5356.1492","volume":"279","author":"Phillips R. J.","year":"1997","unstructured":"Phillips R. J., Hansen V. L., Science 279, 1492 (1997).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_32_2","unstructured":"We thank A. Dombard and R. Phillips for helpful comments. Supported by NASA's Planetary Geology and Geophysics (NAG5-4077) and Planetary Atmospheres (NGW-4982) programs."}],"container-title":["Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1126\/science.286.5437.87","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,13]],"date-time":"2024-01-13T08:49:58Z","timestamp":1705135798000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/science.286.5437.87"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,10]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5437","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1126\/science.286.5437.87"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.286.5437.87","relation":{},"ISSN":["0036-8075","1095-9203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0036-8075","type":"print"},{"value":"1095-9203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,10]]}}}