{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T18:47:00Z","timestamp":1792003620033,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)","issue":"119","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008256","name":"Hyundai Motor Group","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008256","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.science.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sci. Robot."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Trials cyclists and mountain bike riders can hop, jump, balance, and drive on one or both wheels. This versatility allows them to achieve speed and energy efficiency on smooth terrain and agility over rough terrain. Inspired by these athletes, we present the design and control of a robotic platform, Ultra Mobility Vehicle (UMV), that combines a bicycle and a reaction mass to move dynamically with minimal actuated degrees of freedom. We used a simulation-driven design optimization process to synthesize a spatial linkage topology with a focus on vertical jump height and momentum-based balancing on a single wheel contact. Using a deep reinforcement learning (RL) framework, we demonstrate zero-shot transfer of diverse athletic behaviors, including track stands, jumps, wheelies, rear-wheel hopping, and front flips. This 23.5-kilogram robot is capable of high speeds (\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:msub>\n                          <mml:mi>v<\/mml:mi>\n                          <mml:mtext>max<\/mml:mtext>\n                        <\/mml:msub>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    = 8 meters per second) and jumping on and over large obstacles (1-meter tall or 130% of the robot\u2019s nominal height).\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aed3627","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:59:57Z","timestamp":1792000797000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.34133\/aaas_crossmark","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["System design of the Ultra Mobility Vehicle: A driving, balancing, and jumping bicycle robot"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1616-5104","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Bokser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3892-1748","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Preston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Bahner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annika","family":"Wollschl\u00e4ger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Zurich, Switzerland."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Ilvonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9261-889X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Asa","family":"Eckert-Erdheim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0246-3642","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ashwin","family":"Khadke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bilal","family":"Hammoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9725-854X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dean","family":"Molinaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1851-2875","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fabian","family":"Jenelten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Zurich, Switzerland."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henry","family":"Mayne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2266-8744","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Howie","family":"Choset","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."},{"name":"Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3964-5993","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Igor","family":"Bogoslavskyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Zurich, Switzerland."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3865-3907","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Itic","family":"Tinman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Tigue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9301-9386","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jan","family":"Preisig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Zurich, Switzerland."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4751-2284","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kaiyu","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenny","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kim","family":"Ang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8970-9127","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Laura","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liana","family":"Margolese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6399-4652","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nicole","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2516-3700","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Oscar","family":"Frias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Drews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ravi","family":"Boggavarapu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rick","family":"Burnham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2938-7920","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samuel","family":"Zapolsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7400-8501","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sangbae","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Biddlestone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sean","family":"Mayorga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0892-7359","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shamel","family":"Fahmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8112-4547","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Surya","family":"P. N. Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."},{"name":"Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tyler","family":"McCollum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3072-8962","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Velin","family":"Dimitrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5214-3999","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"William","family":"Moyne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu-Ming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4855-4886","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David","family":"Perry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8269-6272","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Farbod","family":"Farshidian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4285-4990","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Marco","family":"Hutter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Zurich, Switzerland."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfred","family":"Rizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0962-2921","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Gabe","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","unstructured":"Boston Dynamics Atlas | Partners in Parkour (2021); https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tF4DML7FIWk."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adi7566"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Chignoli D. Kim E. Stanger-Jones S. Kim \u201cThe MIT humanoid robot: Design motion planning and control for acrobatic behaviors\u201d in 2020 IEEE-RAS 20th International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids) (IEEE 2021) pp. 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/HUMANOIDS47582.2021.9555782"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Hutter C. Gehring D. Jud A. Lauber C. Dario Bellicoso; V. Tsounis J. Hwangbo K. Bodie P. Fankhauser M. Bloesch R. Diethelm S. Bachmann A. Melzer M. Hoepflinger \u201cAnymal - a highly mobile and dynamic quadrupedal robot\u201d in 2016 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE 2016) pp. 38\u201344.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2016.7758092"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G. Bledt M. J. Powell B. Katz J. Di Carlo P. M. Wensing S. Kim \u201cMIT Cheetah 3: Design and control of a robust dynamic quadruped robot\u201d in 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE 2018) pp. 2245\u20132252.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2018.8593885"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. M. Johnson D. E. Koditschek \u201cToward a vocabulary of legged leaping\u201d in 2013 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (IEEE 2013) pp. 2568\u20132575.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2013.6630928"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N. H. Getz J. E. Marsden \u201cControl for an autonomous bicycle\u201d in Proceedings of 1995 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (IEEE 1995) vol. 2 pp. 1397\u20131402.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1995.525473"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y. Tanaka T. Murakami \u201cSelf sustaining bicycle robot with steering controller\u201d in The 8th IEEE International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control 2004. AMC\u201904 (IEEE 2004) pp. 193\u2013197.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMC.2004.1297665"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2018.2876958"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2019.2896758"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2979661"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","unstructured":"Unitree Robotics Unitree B2-W (2025); https:\/\/www.unitree.com\/b2-w."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V. Klemm A. Morra C. Salzmann F. Tschopp K. Bodie L. Gulich N. K\u00fcng D. Mannhart C. Pfister M. Vierneisel F. Weber R. Deuber R. Siegwart \u201cAscento: A two-wheeled jumping robot\u201d in 2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2019) pp. 7515\u20137521.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2019.8793792"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Liu F. Yang X. Liao X. Lyu \u201cDiablo: A 6-DoF wheeled bipedal robot composed entirely of direct-drive joints\u201d in 2024 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE 2024) pp. 3605\u20133612.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS58592.2024.10801943"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","unstructured":"Boston Dynamics Introducing Handle (2017); https:\/\/youtu.be\/-7xvqQeoA8c."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","unstructured":"Red Bull Bike Danny MacAskill\u2019s Postcard from San Francisco (2023); https:\/\/youtu.be\/jIBldkWO9a4."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","unstructured":"Teton Gravity Research One Shot: Brandon Semenuk\u2019s unReal Segment (2015); https:\/\/youtu.be\/5ud5T5I4XcA."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","first-page":"312","article-title":"The stability of the motion of a bicycle","volume":"30","author":"Whipple F. J. W.","year":"1899","unstructured":"F. J. W. Whipple, The stability of the motion of a bicycle. Q. J. Pure Appl. Math. 30, 312\u2013348 (1899).","journal-title":"Q. J. Pure Appl. Math."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","first-page":"1955","article-title":"Linearized dynamics equations for the balance and steer of a bicycle: A benchmark and review","volume":"463","author":"Meijaard J. P.","year":"2007","unstructured":"J. P. Meijaard, J. M. Papadopoulos, A. Ruina, A. L. Schwab, Linearized dynamics equations for the balance and steer of a bicycle: A benchmark and review. Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 463, 1955\u20131982 (2007).","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11071-023-09249-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","unstructured":"A. Levandowski A. Schultz C. Smart A. Krasnov Dezhen Song H. Lee H. Chau B. Majusiak F. Wang Autonomous Motorcycle Platform and Navigation | Blue Team DARPA Grand Challenge 2005. DARPA Report 1 (2010)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","unstructured":"Yamaha Motor Company The Story Behind the MOTOBOT Project (2017); https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=YSf5xBY-AoM."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","unstructured":"Murata Murata Boy (2025); https:\/\/corporate.murata.com\/en-us\/more_murata\/robots\/mboy."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Beznos A. M. Formal'sky E. V. Gurfinkel D. N. Jicharev A. V. Lensky K. V. Savitsky L. S. Tchesalin \u201cControl of autonomous motion of two-wheel bicycle with gyroscopic stabilisation\u201d in Proceedings. 1998 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No. 98CH36146) (IEEE 1998) vol. 3 pp. 2670\u20132675.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1998.680749"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y. Zhang P. Wang J. Yi D. Song T. Liu \u201cStationary balance control of a bikebot\u201d in 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2014) pp. 6706\u20136711.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2014.6907849"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2020.102386"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","unstructured":"Honda Motor Co. Ltd. Seeking a Motorcycle with No Concerns About Falling Motorcycle Attitude Control: Honda Riding Assist (2026); https:\/\/global.honda\/en\/tech\/Honda_Riding_Assist\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","unstructured":"B. Wang Y. Deng F. Jing Y. Sun Z. Chen B. Liang Equilibrium adaptation-based control for track stand of single-track two wheeled robots. arXiv: 2410.19615 [cs.RO] (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z. Yuan L. Ye H. Liu Z. Chen B. Liang \u201cDynamic jumps of an agile bicycle through reinforcement learning\u201d in 2024 IEEE 3rd Industrial Electronics Society Annual On-Line Conference (ONCON) (IEEE 2024) pp. 1\u20135.","DOI":"10.1109\/ONCON62778.2024.10931394"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","unstructured":"J. Randl\u00f8v P. Alstr\u00f8m \u201cLearning to drive a bicycle using reinforcement learning and shaping\u201d in ICML (1998) vol. 98 pp. 463\u2013471."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X. Zhu X. Zheng Y. Deng Z. Chen B. Liang Y. Liu \u201cDeep reinforcement learning-based control of bicycle robots on rough terrain\u201d in 2023 9th International Conference on Control Automation and Robotics (ICCAR) (IEEE 2023) pp. 103\u2013108.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAR57134.2023.10151769"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/act12030109"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2023.106941"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/01423312211037847"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Wang F. Jing Y. Deng Z. Chen B. Liang \u201cBayesian optimization-based ideal landing planning for ramp jump of single-track two-wheeled robots\u201d in 2024 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO) (IEEE 2024) pp. 396\u2013401.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO64047.2024.10907427"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Wang F. Jing Y. Deng Z. Chen B. Liang \u201cAttitude control during the flight phase of ramp jump for single-track two-wheeled robots\u201d in 2024 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO) (IEEE 2024) pp. 1629\u20131634.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO64047.2024.10907473"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2601097.2601121"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aau5872"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Miller F. Yu M. Brauckmann F. Farshidian \u201cHigh-performance reinforcement learning on Spot: Optimizing simulation parameters with distributional measures\u201d in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2025) pp. 9981\u20139988.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA55743.2025.11128575"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783649241285161"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783649231224053"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X. Cheng K. Shi A. Agarwal D. Pathak \u201cExtreme parkour with legged robots\u201d in 2024 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2024) pp. 11443\u201311450.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA57147.2024.10610200"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.ads6192"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abc5986"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adv3604"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3197517.3201311","article-title":"Deepmimic: Example-guided deep reinforcement learning of physics-based character skills","volume":"37","author":"Peng X. B.","year":"2018","unstructured":"X. B. Peng, P. Abbeel, S. Levine, M. Van de Panne, Deepmimic: Example-guided deep reinforcement learning of physics-based character skills. ACM Trans. Graph. 37, 1\u201314 (2018).","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X. B. Peng E. Coumans T. Zhang T.-W. Lee J. Tan S. Levine \u201cLearning agile robotic locomotion skills by imitating animals\u201d in Robotics: Science and Systems (RSS) M. Toussaint A. Bicchi T. Hermans Eds. (RSS Foundation 2020) 10.15607\/RSS.2020.XVI.064.","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2020.XVI.064"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3272127.3275014","article-title":"SFV: Reinforcement learning of physical skills from videos","volume":"37","author":"Peng X. B.","year":"2018","unstructured":"X. B. Peng, A. Kanazawa, J. Malik, P. Abbeel, S. Levine, SFV: Reinforcement learning of physical skills from videos. ACM Trans. Graph. 37, 1\u201314 (2018).","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","unstructured":"A. Allshire H. Choi J. Zhang D. McAllister A. Zhang C. M. Kim T. Darrell P. Abbeel J. Malik A. Kanazawa Visual imitation enables contextual humanoid control. arXiv:2505.03729 [cs.RO] (2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N. Mahmood N. Ghorbani N. F. Troje G. Pons-Moll M. J. Black \u201cAMASS: Archive of motion capture as surface shapes\u201d in Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (IEEE 2019) pp. 5442\u20135451.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2019.00554"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3386569.3392480"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T. He J. Gao W. Xiao Y. Zhang Z. Wang J. Wang Z. Luo G. He N. Sobanbab C. Pan Z. Yi G. Qu K. Kitani J. Hodgins L. \"J.\" Fan Y. Zhu C. Liu G. Shi ASAP: Aligning simulation and real-world physics for learning agile humanoid whole-body skills. arXiv: 2502.01143 [cs.RO] (2025).","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2025.XXI.066"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_2","unstructured":"Z. Chen M. Ji X. Cheng X. Peng X. B. Peng X. Wang GMT: General motion tracking for humanoid whole-body control. arXiv: 2506.14770 [cs.RO] (2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T. He Z. Luo W. Xiao C. Zhang K. Kitani C. Liu G. Shi Learning human-to-humanoid real-time whole-body teleoperation. arXiv: 2403.04436 [cs.RO] (2024).","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS58592.2024.10801984"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_2","unstructured":"T. He Z. Luo W. Xiao C. Zhang W. Zhang K. Kitani C. Liu G. Shi OmniH2O: Universal and dexterous human-to-humanoid whole-body teleoperation and learning. arXiv: 2406.08858 [cs.RO] (2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y. Fuchioka Z. Xie M. Van de Panne Opt-Mimic: Imitation of optimized trajectories for dynamic quadruped behaviors. arXiv: 2210.01247 [cs.RO] (2022).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA48891.2023.10160562"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F. Liu Z. Gu Y. Cai Z. Zhou H. Jung J. Jang S. Zhao S. Ha Y. Chen D. Xu Y. Zhao Opt2skill: Imitating dynamically-feasible whole-body trajectories for versatile humanoid loco-manipulation. arXiv: 2409.20514 [cs.RO] (2024).","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2025.3620620"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_2","unstructured":"A. Miller S. Fahmi M. Chignoli S. Kim Reinforcement learning for legged robots: Motion imitation from model-based optimal control. arXiv: 2305.10989 [cs.RO] (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y.-H. Shin S. Hong S. Woo J. H. Choe H. Son G. Kim J.-H. Kim K. K. Lee J. Hwangbo H.-W. Park \u201cDesign of KAIST HOUND a quadruped robot platform for fast and efficient locomotion with mixed-integer nonlinear optimization of a gear train\u201d in 2022 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2022) pp. 6614\u20136620.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA46639.2022.9811755"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. H. Raibert Legged Robots that Balance (MIT Press 1986).","DOI":"10.1109\/MEX.1986.4307016"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aag2048"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04606-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2018.00004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_65_2","unstructured":"J. Hurst A. Rizzi D. Hobbelen \u201cSeries Elastic Actuation: Potential and Pitfalls\u201d (2004); https:\/\/mime.engineering.oregonstate.edu\/research\/drl\/_documents\/hurst_2004a.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Ossadnik V. Rak\u010devi\u0107 M. C. Yildirim E. P. Fortuni\u0107 H. T. M. Kussaba A. Swikir \u201cOptimal control for clutched-elastic robots: A contact-implicit approach\u201d in IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2024) pp. 11481\u201311487.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA57147.2024.10610380"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2640183"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_68_2","unstructured":"R. S. Hand \u201cComparisons and stability analysis of linearized equations of motion for a basic bicycle model \u201d thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY USA (1988)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_69_2","unstructured":"D. W. Vos \u201cNonlinear control of an autonomous unicycle robot: Practical issues \u201d Ph.D. thesis Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA USA (1992)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3192654"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H. B. Brown Y. Xu \u201cA single-wheel gyroscopically stabilized robot\u201d in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (IEEE 1996) vol. 4 pp. 3658\u20133663.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1996.509270"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Okawa L. Keo M. Yamakita \u201cRealization of acrobatic turn via wheelie for a bicycle with a balancer\u201d in 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (IEEE 2009) pp. 2965\u20132970.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2009.5152419"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_73_2","unstructured":"E. D. Sontag Mathematical Control Theory: Deterministic Finite Dimensional Systems (Springer Science & Business Media 2013) vol. 6."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21398-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_75_2","unstructured":"F. Dellaert V. Agrawal R. Roberts A. Cunningham C. Beall D.-N. Ta F. Jiang lucacarlone nikai J. L. Blanco-Claraco S. Williams ydjian G. Chen J. Lambert A. Krishnan A. Melim Z. Lv J. Dong K. Chande balderdash-devil DiffDecisionTrees S. An mpaluri E. Paiva Mendes M. Bosse A. Patel A. Baid P. Furgale matthewbroadwaynavenio1 roderick-koehle borglab\/gtsam Zenodo (2022) 10.5281\/zenodo.5794541."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C. Forster L. Carlone F. Dellaert D. Scaramuzza \u201cIMU preintegration on manifold for efficient visual-inertial maximum-a-posteriori estimation\u201d in Proceedings of Robotics: Science and Systems (RSS) L. E. Kavraki D. Hsu J. Buchli Eds. (RSS Foundation 2015) 10.15607\/RSS.2015.XI.006.","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2015.XI.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Kim S. Fahmi S. Rho S. Ha G. Nelson \u201cFlip stunts on bicycle robots using iterative motion imitation\u201d in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2026).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA57385.2026.11697028"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2023.3270034"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E. Chane-Sane P.-A. Leziart T. Flayols O. Stasse P. Sou\u00e8res N. Mansard \u201cCaT: Constraints as terminations for legged locomotion reinforcement learning\u201d in IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE 2024) pp. 13303\u201313310.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS58592.2024.10802334"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_80_2","unstructured":"N. Rudin D. Hoeller P. Reist M. Hutter \u201cLearning to walk in minutes using massively parallel deep reinforcement learning\u201d in Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Robot Learning (CoRL) A. Faust D. Hsu G. Neumann Eds. vol. 164 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research (PMLR 2021) pp. 91\u2013100."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_81_2","unstructured":"J. Schulman F. Wolski P. Dhariwal A. Radford O. Klimov Proximal policy optimization algorithms. arXiv: 1707.06347 [cs.LG] (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Siekmann Y. Godse A. Fern J. Hurst \u201cSim-to-real learning of all common bipedal gaits via periodic reward composition\u201d in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (IEEE 2021) pp. 7309\u20137315.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA48506.2021.9561814"}],"container-title":["Science Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aed3627","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T18:01:01Z","timestamp":1792000861000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aed3627"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"119","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1126\/scirobotics.aed3627"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scirobotics.aed3627","relation":{},"ISSN":["2470-9476"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2470-9476","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-01-14","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-15","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-10-14","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"eaed3627"}}