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Robot."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Miniature wireless magnetic robots (MWMRs) hold immense potential for minimally invasive interventions. Real-time tracking of MWMRs is essential for precise in vivo navigation but remains challenging. Tracking MWMRs via their emitted magnetic signals offers a viable solution, yet it has been limited to centimeter-scale robots because isolating weak MWMR signals from overwhelming actuation-induced interference becomes increasingly difficult with miniaturization. Here, we present an artificial intelligence (AI)\u2013driven tracking system to overcome these challenges, enabling precise localization of millimeter-scale MWMRs in the presence of actuation fields. Our approach integrates a sensor array design with a transformer to accurately model and filter the interference, followed by a spatiotemporal transformer that interprets the extracted MWMR signals over a short time window to corresponding three-dimensional coordinates. Our system has been validated in a range of in vitro and in vivo experiments, demonstrating its applicability to closed-loop navigation of MWMRs in unshielded clinical settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aee0592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:58:37Z","timestamp":1790186317000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.34133\/aaas_crossmark","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AI-driven actuation-compatible tracking for closed-loop navigation of miniature robots in vivo"],"prefix":"10.1126","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2441-6057","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Delin","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2736-5347","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zhaoyang","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8992-4338","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yihang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7139-8519","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xurui","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moqiu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1300-6300","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Haojin","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1152-8962","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Li","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China."},{"name":"Chinese University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"221","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2014.2321777"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2019.2939091"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.ado1489"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adh3073"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adk8970"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adj0883"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adh2479"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2020.2988636"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-023-00916-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adf5451"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2022.3161766"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2023.3340324"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-017-0129-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44182-024-00008-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2024.3422391"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2004.840497"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adp3593"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3148787"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2013.2266754"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2023.3238693"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. 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