{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T02:56:43Z","timestamp":1777517803875,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2007,9,1]],"date-time":"2007-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1188604800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Antimicrob Agents Chemother"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>\n            Previously, it has been shown that the polysaccharide chitosan inhibits the growth of gram-positive bacteria. In this study, chitosan malate was evaluated in broth and thin-film cultures for its effect on the growth and exotoxin production of toxic shock syndrome (TSS)-inducing\n            <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n            (five strains, three producing TSS toxin 1 and one each producing enterotoxin B or C) and group A streptococci (three strains producing streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A). Also, the compound was evaluated in a rabbit subcutaneous Wiffle ball model for its ability to prevent\n            <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n            and group A streptococcal induction of TSS. Finally, chitosan malate was evaluated for its ability to prevent TSS and necrotizing fasciitis in rabbits after subcutaneous inoculation with microbes. Chitosan malate inhibited both bacterial growth and, at sub-growth-inhibitory concentrations, the production of exotoxins, in both broth and thin-film cultures. Rabbits treated with chitosan malate in implanted Wiffle balls were protected from prior challenge with TSS-inducing\n            <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n            compared to animals not receiving chitosan malate (\n            <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n            &lt; 0.001) and group A streptococci (\n            <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n            &lt; 0.005). Chitosan malate protected rabbits from the development of streptococcal TSS with necrotizing fasciitis (\n            <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n            &lt; 0.01). The data suggest that use of this growth- and toxin-inhibitory compound may be able to reduce the severity of\n            <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n            and group A streptococcal mucous membrane and trauma-associated skin infections.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01295-06","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,6,19]],"date-time":"2007-06-19T00:59:44Z","timestamp":1182214784000},"page":"3056-3062","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Chitosan Malate Inhibits Growth and Exotoxin Production of Toxic Shock Syndrome-Inducing\n            <i>Staphylococcus aureus<\/i>\n            Strains and Group A Streptococci"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"51","author":[{"given":"Patrick M.","family":"Schlievert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(84)90320-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(88)65009-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2006.03.028"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.BCR.0000216741.21433.66"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","first-page":"1123","volume":"282","year":"1999","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus\u2014Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999. 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M. 1996. Effect of Merocel vaginal sponge on growth of Staphylococcus aureus and production of toxic shock syndrome-associated toxins. J. Am. Coll. Surg.183:19-24.","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(88)65050-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2143(96)90161-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-157-40079"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/147.2.236"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","first-page":"666","volume":"64","year":"1984","unstructured":"Schlievert, P. M., D. A. Blomster, and J. A. Kelly. 1984. Toxic shock syndrome Staphylococcus aureus: effect of tampons on toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 production. Obstet. Gynecol.64:666-671.","journal-title":"Obstet. 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Lippincott\/The Williams & Wilkins Co., Philadelphia, PA.","journal-title":"Effects of microbes on the immune system"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/20.Supplement_2.S154"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/158.1.23"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198907063210101"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2002.tb02661.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.burns.2003.10.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.4.1302-1305.2005"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.183.4.1113-1123.2001"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.5.1797-1803.2000"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI20442"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","first-page":"243","volume":"2","year":"1987","unstructured":"Zitelli, J. 1987. Wound healing for the clinician. Adv. Dermatol.2:243-267.","journal-title":"Adv. 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