{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T10:59:58Z","timestamp":1786445998854,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,15]],"date-time":"2017-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1500076800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"USGS Ecosystems Mission"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Appl Environ Microbiol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>\n            In November and December of 2013, a large mortality event involving 15,000 to 20,000 eared grebes (\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Podiceps nigricollis<\/jats:named-content>\n            ) occurred at the Great Salt Lake (GSL), UT. The onset of the outbreak in grebes was followed by a mortality event in &gt;86 bald eagles (\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Haliaeetus leucocephalus<\/jats:named-content>\n            ). During the die-off, West Nile virus (WNV) was detected by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) or viral culture in the carcasses of grebes and eagles submitted to the National Wildlife Health Center. However, no activity of mosquitoes, the primary vectors of WNV, was detected by the State of Utah's WNV monitoring program. The transmission of WNV has rarely been reported during the winter in North America in the absence of known mosquito activity; however, the size of this die-off, the habitat in which it occurred, and the species involved are unique. We experimentally investigated whether WNV could survive in water with a high salt content, as found at the GSL, and whether brine shrimp, the primary food of migrating eared grebes on the GSL, could have played a role in the transmission of WNV to feeding birds. We found that WNV can survive up to 72 h at 4\u00b0C in water containing 30 to 150 ppt NaCl, and brine shrimp incubated with WNV in 30 ppt NaCl may adsorb WNV to their cuticle and, through feeding, infect epithelial cells of their gut. Both mechanisms may have potentiated the WNV die-off in migrating eared grebes on the GSL.\n          <\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            <jats:bold>IMPORTANCE<\/jats:bold>\n            Following a major West Nile virus die-off of eared grebes and bald eagles at the Great Salt Lake (GSL), UT, in November to December 2013, this study assessed the survival of West Nile virus (WNV) in water as saline as that of the GSL and whether brine shrimp, the major food for migrating grebes, could have played a role as a vector for the virus. While mosquitoes are the major vector of WNV, under certain circumstances, transmission may occur through contaminated water and invertebrates as food.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.00705-17","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,13]],"date-time":"2017-05-13T00:40:19Z","timestamp":1494636019000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Potential for Waterborne and Invertebrate Transmission of West Nile Virus in the Great Salt Lake, Utah"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"83","author":[{"given":"Melissa","family":"Lund","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valerie","family":"Shearn-Bochsler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert J.","family":"Dusek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Shivers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erik","family":"Hofmeister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1201010"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-4877.2011.00251.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v5092079"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/376230"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5448.2333"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.37-3-208"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1009.040203"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.8.3110-3111.2000"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1312.070413"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjv040"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/currents.outbreaks.b0f031fc8db2a827d9da0f30f0766871"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/cjz-2013-0181"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jwmg.580"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0903.020628"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.41-4-362"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-010-9025-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es047995w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268898001290"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00133-16"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2008.10.027"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.49.4.778-781.1985"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.39.6.1105-1110.1980"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252307001430"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1603\/ME10167"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1012.040167"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2987\/8756-971X(2006)21[474:DOWNVR]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2004.00631.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.41.1.207-211.1981"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","volume-title":"Recommended chemical soil test procedures for the north central region","author":"Whitney D","year":"1998","unstructured":"Whitney D . 1998. 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