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These genetic events enabled a shift from the fecal-oral route to vector-borne transmission and facilitated systemic spread. In the course of its evolutionary history,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Y. pestis<\/jats:italic>\n                      has caused an unaccountable number of human outbreaks, at both regional and pandemic scales, of which three global pandemics have been documented from historical sources. The bacterium currently persists in sylvatic (enzootic) natural foci across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Its persistence depends on the co-occurrence of reservoir hosts (mainly mammals) and competent vectors, primarily mammal ectoparasites, and their occurrence is shaped by environmental conditions. However, ecological variation among foci and limited epidemiological data still hinder our understanding of plague dynamics. This review examines the genetic evolution of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Y. pestis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , traces the bacterium\u2019s history, including its global spread, and presents the main actors of sylvatic plague involved in the bacterium\u2019s maintenance, with a special emphasis on the knowledge of vectors and hosts in countries that have reported cases of plague over the past decade. The global dispersal of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Y. pestis<\/jats:italic>\n                      has led to its adaptation to several distinct environments, highlighting the need for a comprehensive surveillance strategy for a better understanding of the ecological drivers of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Y. pestis<\/jats:italic>\n                      persistence and transmission within each of the geographical regions it is maintained in the natural environment.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01658-25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T13:00:16Z","timestamp":1773406816000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Emergence, global dispersal, and local adaptations of\n                    <i>Yersinia pestis<\/i>\n                    , the agent of plague"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"92","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6744-0331","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Victoria","family":"Carcauzon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05fnxds15","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Universit\u00e9 de La R\u00e9union, Unit\u00e9 Mixte de Recherche Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (UMR PIMIT), CNRS 9192, INSERM 1187, IRD 249, Plateforme Technologique CYROI","place":["Sainte Clotilde, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7626-9426","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Anne","family":"Laudisoit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/008x57b05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"EVECO group, University of Antwerp","place":["Wilrijk, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6460-145X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Philip","family":"Slavin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/045wgfr59","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Stirling","place":["Stirling, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9318-0570","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Steven M.","family":"Goodman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00mh9zx15","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Field Museum of Natural History","place":["Chicago, USA"]},{"name":"Association Vahatra","place":["Antananarivo, Madagascar"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3811-9691","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Florent","family":"Sebbane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00dyt5s15","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur Lille, U1019 - UMR 9017 - CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille","place":["Lille, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7928-7264","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Pablo","family":"Tortosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05fnxds15","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Universit\u00e9 de La R\u00e9union, Unit\u00e9 Mixte de Recherche Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (UMR PIMIT), CNRS 9192, INSERM 1187, IRD 249, Plateforme Technologique CYROI","place":["Sainte Clotilde, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3917\/adh.134.0063"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","volume-title":"The complete history of the Black Death","author":"Benedictow POJ","year":"2021","unstructured":"Benedictow POJ. 2021. 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