{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T05:36:01Z","timestamp":1791178561666,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,15]],"date-time":"2012-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1352937600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Appl Environ Microbiol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    While anthrax is typically associated with bioterrorism, in many parts of the world the anthrax bacillus (\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Bacillus anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    ) is endemic in soils, where it causes sporadic disease in livestock. These soils are typically rich in organic matter and calcium that promote survival of resilient\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    spores. Outbreaks of anthrax tend to occur in warm weather following rains that are believed to concentrate spores in low-lying areas where runoff collects. It has been concluded that elevated spore concentrations are not the result of vegetative growth as\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    competes poorly against indigenous bacteria. Here, we test an alternative hypothesis in which amoebas, common in moist soils and pools of standing water, serve as amplifiers of\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    spores by enabling germination and intracellular multiplication. Under simulated environmental conditions, we show that\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    germinates and multiplies within\n                    <jats:italic>Acanthamoeba castellanii<\/jats:italic>\n                    . The growth kinetics of a fully virulent\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    Ames strain (containing both the pX01 and pX02 virulence plasmids) and vaccine strain Sterne (containing only pX01) inoculated as spores in coculture with\n                    <jats:italic>A. castellanii<\/jats:italic>\n                    showed a nearly 50-fold increase in spore numbers after 72 h. In contrast, the plasmidless strain 9131 showed little growth, demonstrating that plasmid pX01 is essential for growth within\n                    <jats:italic>A. castellanii<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Electron and time-lapse fluorescence microscopy revealed that spores germinate within amoebal phagosomes, vegetative bacilli undergo multiplication, and, following demise of the amoebas, bacilli sporulate in the extracellular milieu. This analysis supports our hypothesis that amoebas contribute to the persistence and amplification of\n                    <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">B. anthracis<\/jats:named-content>\n                    in natural environments.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.02034-12","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,9,15]],"date-time":"2012-09-15T06:43:38Z","timestamp":1347691418000},"page":"8075-8081","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":94,"title":["Germination and Amplification of Anthrax Spores by Soil-Dwelling Amoebas"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"78","author":[{"given":"Rafik","family":"Dey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul S.","family":"Hoffman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian J.","family":"Glomski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2004.05.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00660-07"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009128"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2009.06972.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1462-5822.2000.00067.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.177.3.614-620.1995"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.022970-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.15.3.506-526.2002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0030076"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1999.01137.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-11-46"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-842X(99)01507-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2007.00766.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2009.08.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2008.01123.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.74.3.1949-1953.2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00244-12"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","first-page":"71","article-title":"Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia","volume":"61","author":"Lindeque PM","year":"1994","unstructured":"LindequePM TurnbullPC. 1994. Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 61:71\u201383.","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.55.1.647"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.181.20.6509-6515.1999"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.1.98-106.2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10408419409114556"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2006.00869.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/382656"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.72.5.3168-3174.2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006532"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","first-page":"21","article-title":"Bacillus anthracis but not always anthrax","volume":"72","author":"Turnbull PC","year":"1992","unstructured":"TurnbullPC. 1992. Bacillus anthracis but not always anthrax. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 72:21\u201328.","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.172.3990.1303"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","first-page":"7","article-title":"Soils of the United States favorable for anthrax","volume":"128","author":"Van Ness GB and Stein CD","year":"1956","unstructured":"Van Ness GB and SteinCD. 1956. Soils of the United States favorable for anthrax. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 128:7\u201312.","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.71.7.3954-3959.2003"}],"container-title":["Applied and Environmental Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/AEM.02034-12","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/AEM.02034-12","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T14:43:19Z","timestamp":1645627399000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/10.1128\/AEM.02034-12"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,15]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,15]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1128\/AEM.02034-12"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/aem.02034-12","relation":{},"ISSN":["0099-2240","1098-5336"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0099-2240","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-5336","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2012-06-26","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2012-09-05","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2012-10-22","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}