{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T12:12:49Z","timestamp":1792843969138,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/ASMCopyrightv2"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741824000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Clin Microbiol Rev"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Prior to 2019, when the orally available drug fexinidazole began its clinical use, the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) was complex and unsatisfactory for many reasons. Two sub-species of the\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei<\/jats:italic>\n                    parasite are responsible for HAT, namely the rhodesiense form found in East and Southern Africa and the gambiense form found in Central and West Africa. Diseases caused by both forms manifest in two stages: stage 1 before and stage 2 after central nervous system involvement. Prior to 2019, different drugs were required for each of the two parasite sub-species at each stage. Gambiense disease required pentamidine or nifurtimox-eflornithine combination therapy, while for rhodesiense disease, suramin or melarsoprol was given for stages 1 and 2, respectively. These drugs all suffered complications including protracted administration regimens involving multiple injections with drug-induced adverse effects common. Today, a single drug, fexinidazole, can be given orally in most cases for both diseases at either stage. Another compound, acoziborole, effective in both stages 1 and 2 gambiense disease with a single dosing is anticipated to become available within a few years. Moreover, the recent engagement of multilateral organizations in seeking other compounds that could be used in HAT therapy has also been successful, and a rich vein of new trypanocides has been discovered. Here, the clinical use, modes of action, and resistance risks for drugs used against HAT are discussed.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00153-23","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T08:19:43Z","timestamp":1736324383000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Transforming the chemotherapy of human African trypanosomiasis"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"38","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9447-3519","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michael P.","family":"Barrett","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow","place":["Glasgow, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31510-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)14694-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53490-3.00011-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathmechdis-031621-025153"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006855"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1007074107"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0166-6851(99)00151-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0166-6851(01)00208-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000602"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12516"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-017-0013-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2022.102209"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2014.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007262"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182016001268"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.491"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01787-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2018.05.033"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000149583"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10520290903297528"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","volume-title":"The colonial disease: a social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine)","author":"Lyons M","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lyons M. 2002. 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