{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T14:50:39Z","timestamp":1790261439319,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,1]],"date-time":"2002-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1025481600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Clin Microbiol Rev"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>\n              The hemoflagellates,\n              <jats:italic>Trypanosoma<\/jats:italic>\n              spp. and\n              <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n              spp., are causal agents of a number of parasitic diseases having a major impact on humans and domestic animals over vast areas of the globe. Among the diseases are some of the most pernicious and deadly of human afflictions: African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, kala-azar, and Oriental sore. The organisms have complex, pleomorphic life cycles typically involving a vertebrate and an invertebrate host, the latter serving as a vector. In the vertebrate host, they are primarily blood and tissue parasites. In their transition from one host to another, the hemoflagellates undergo morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes that facilitate their growth and subsequent transmission. A major goal in the study of the hemoflagellates has been the cultivation in vitro of both vertebrate and invertebrate stages of the organisms. The first types of media used in their cultivation, and still useful for establishment of cultures, were undefined and contained a complex of ingredients. These gave way to semidefined formulations which included tissue culture media as a base and, as a next step, addition of tissue culture cells as a feeder layer to promote parasite growth. More recently developed media are completely defined, having replaced the feeder cells with various supplements. Serum, a sometimes-variable component of the media, can be replaced by various serum substitutes. This review focuses on the hemoflagellates that infect humans, describing stages in the development of media leading to the fully defined formulations that are now available for the cultivation of many of these organisms.\n            <\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.15.3.374-389.2002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,28]],"date-time":"2002-07-28T23:07:23Z","timestamp":1027897643000},"page":"374-389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Cultivation of Clinically Significant Hemoflagellates"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Frederick L.","family":"Schuster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Viral and Rickettsial Disease Laboratory, State of California Department of Health Services, Richmond, California"},{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James J.","family":"Sullivan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Viral and Rickettsial Disease Laboratory, State of California Department of Health Services, Richmond, California"},{"name":"Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_1_2_2","first-page":"163","volume":"59","year":"1997","unstructured":"Ali, S. A., J. Iqbal, B. Ahmad, and M. Masoom. 1997. A semisynthetic fetal calf serum-free liquid medium for in vitro cultivation of Leishmania promastigotes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.59:163-165.","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3283454"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(79)90051-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_5_2","first-page":"285","volume":"129","year":"1983","unstructured":"Avila, J. L., R. Perez-Kepp, and A. Bretana. 1983. A minimal medium for the cultivation of infective Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes. J. Gen. Microbiol.129:285-291.","journal-title":"J. Gen. Microbiol."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_6_2","unstructured":"Baker J. R. 1969. Parasitic protozoa. Hutchinson University Library London United Kingdom."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_7_2","first-page":"76","year":"1987","unstructured":"Baker, J. R. 1987. Trypanosoma cruzi and other stercorarian trypanosomes, p. 76-93. In A. E. R. Taylor and J. R. Baker (ed.), In vitro methods for parasite cultivation. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"In vitro methods for parasite cultivation"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118209700214X"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6836284"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03772.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-4758(94)90246-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-4758(93)90181-E"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000074102"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1966.tb01879.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3279633"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_16_2","unstructured":"Manual of clinical microbiology 1999"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_17_2","first-page":"94","year":"1987","unstructured":"Brun, R., and L. Jenni. 1987. Salivarian trypanosomes: bloodstream forms (Trypomastigotes), p. 94-117. In A. E. R. Taylor and J. R. Baker (ed.), In vitro methods for parasite cultivation. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"In vitro methods for parasite cultivation"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1981.tb05322.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_19_2","first-page":"387","volume":"36","year":"1979","unstructured":"Brun, R., L. Jenni, M. Tanner, M. Schonenberger, and K.-F. Schell. 1979. Cultivation of vertebrate infective forms derived from metacyclic forms of pleomorphic Trypanosoma brucei stocks. Acta Trop.36:387-390.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_20_2","first-page":"111","year":"1983","unstructured":"Chang, K.-P., and W. R. Fish. 1983. Leishmania, p. 111-153. In J. B. Jensen (ed.), In vitro cultivation of protozoan parasites. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.","journal-title":"In vitro cultivation of protozoan parasites"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(86)32045-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1990.tb01157.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-13-2-273"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1987.tb03216.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000046540"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1998.4276"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3280006"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_28_2","first-page":"175","volume":"1","year":"1977","unstructured":"de Raadt, P., and J. R. Seed. 1977. Trypanosomes causing disease in man in Africa, p. 175-237. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(91)90104-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.162.4.1256"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(92)90224-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1989.tb01086.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_33_2","first-page":"52","year":"1987","unstructured":"Evans, D. A. 1987. Leishmania, p. 52-75. In A. E. R. Taylor and J. R. Baker (ed.), In vitro methods for parasite cultivation. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"In vitro methods for parasite cultivation"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_34_2","first-page":"135","volume":"1","year":"1977","unstructured":"Fife, E. H., Jr. 1977. Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi, p. 135-173. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(08)60240-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(96)00633-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_37_2","first-page":"118","year":"1987","unstructured":"Gray, M. A., H. Hirumi, and P. R. Gardiner. 1987. Salivarian trypanosomes: insect forms, p. 118-152. In A. E. R. Taylor and J. R. Baker (ed.), In vitro methods for parasite cultivation. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"In vitro methods for parasite cultivation"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(00)01811-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(90)90075-W"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000048186"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(95)00027-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(89)90199-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_43_2","first-page":"193","year":"1983","unstructured":"Hill, G. C., and H. Hirumi. 1983. African trypansomes, p. 193-219. In J. B. Jensen (ed.), In vitro cultivation of protozoan parasites. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.","journal-title":"In vitro cultivation of protozoan parasites"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_44_2","first-page":"201","volume":"35","year":"1978","unstructured":"Hill, G. C., S. Shimer, B. Caughey, and S. Sauer. 1978. Growth of infective forms of Trypanosoma (T.) brucei on buffalo lung and Chinese hamster lung tissue culture cells. Acta Trop.35:201-207.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.715441"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.558652"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_47_2","first-page":"85","volume":"75","year":"1989","unstructured":"Hirumi, H., and K. Hirumi. 1989. Continuous culture of Trypanosoma brucei blood stream forms in a medium containing a low concentration of serum protein without feeder cell layers. J. Parasitol.75:85-989.","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000062533"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-268.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_50_2","unstructured":"Hoare C. A. 1972. The trypanosomes of mammals. Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford United Kingdom."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3284297"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1996.0053"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(91)90226-O"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000054536"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3281131"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_56_2","first-page":"177","volume":"1","year":"1987","unstructured":"Janovy, J., Jr. 1987. Physiology and biochemistry, p. 177-210. In W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (ed.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"The leishmaniases in biology and medicine"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_57_2","first-page":"33","volume":"45","year":"1988","unstructured":"Kaminsky, R., E. Beaudoin, and I. Cunningham. 1988. Cultivation of the life cycle stages of Trypanosoma brucei sspp. Acta Trop.45:33-43.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182097001340"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_59_2","first-page":"23","volume":"41","year":"1935","unstructured":"Kofoid, C. A., F. D. Wood, and E. McNeil. 1935. The cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in tissue culture of embryonic heart muscle. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool.41:23-24.","journal-title":"Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1979.tb04653.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_61_2","first-page":"141","year":"1985","unstructured":"Lee, J. J., and S. H. Hutner. 1985. Order 11. Kinetoplastida Honigberg, 1963 Emend Vickerman, 1976, p. 141-155. In J. J. Lee, S. H. Hutner, and E. C. Bovee (ed.), An illustrated guide to the protozoa. Society of Protozoologists, Lawrence, Kans.","journal-title":"An illustrated guide to the protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_62_2","first-page":"99","volume":"45","year":"1988","unstructured":"Lemesre, J. L., F. Darcy, M. Kweider, A. Capron, and F. Santoro. 1988. Requirements of defined cultivation conditions for standard growth of Leishmania promastigotes in vitro. Acta Trop.45:99-108.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1995.tb01569.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/2161141a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.9.2430-2431.1997"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lumsden W. H. R. 1974. Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis: the causative organisms compared and contrasted p. 3-21. In Ciba Foundation symposium 20: trypansomiasis and leishmaniasis with special reference to Chagas' disease. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470720035.ch2"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(91)90112-A"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_68_2","first-page":"137","volume":"42","year":"1985","unstructured":"Melo, N. M., H. P. de Azevedo, I. Roitman, and W. Mayrink. 1985. A new defined medium for cultivating Leishmania promastigotes. Acta Trop.42:137-141.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1999.60.41"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_70_2","unstructured":"Nerad T. 1993. Catalog of protists 18th ed. American Type Culture Collection Manassas Va."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1961.10.140"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_72_2","first-page":"842","volume":"146","year":"1908","unstructured":"Nicolle, C. 1908. Culture du parasite du bouton d'Orient. C. R. Acad. Sci.146:842-843.","journal-title":"C. R. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/1.1.1"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_74_2","first-page":"109","volume":"45","year":"1988","unstructured":"O'Daly, J. A., and M. B. Rodriquez. 1988. Differential growth requirements of several Leishmania spp. in chemically defined culture media. Acta Trop.45:109-126.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(87)90011-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(84)90022-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1993.tb04906.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(78)90062-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_79_2","first-page":"88","year":"1996","unstructured":"Pays, E., and L. Vanhamme. 1996. Developmental regulation of gene expression in African trypanosomes, p. 88-114. In D. F. Smith and M. Parsons (ed.), Molecular biology of parasitic protozoa. IRL Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.","journal-title":"Molecular biology of parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(60)90025-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_81_2","first-page":"127","volume":"33","year":"1970","unstructured":"Pittam, M. D. 1970. Medium for in vitro culture of Trypanosoma rhodesiense and Trypanosoma brucei. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.33:127-128.","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.63.102"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_83_2","unstructured":"Roberts L. S. and J. Janovy Jr. 1996. Foundations of parasitology 5th ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers Dubuque Iowa."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00933783"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1986.35.942"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_86_2","first-page":"1","volume":"10","year":"1995","unstructured":"Schnur, L. F., and C. L. Greenblatt. 1995. Leishmania, p. 1-160. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 10. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_87_2","first-page":"499","volume":"1","year":"1987","unstructured":"Schnur, L. F., and R. L. Jacobson. 1987. Appendix III. Parasitological techniques, p. 499-541. In W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (ed.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"The leishmaniases in biology and medicine"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_88_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1985.tb03100.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_89_2","first-page":"239","volume":"1","year":"1977","unstructured":"Soltys, M. A., and P. T. K. Woo. 1977. Trypanosomes producing disease in livestock in Africa, p. 239-268. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3279200"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1977.tb04771.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_92_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1994.1047"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_93_2","first-page":"6","year":"1996","unstructured":"Swindle, J., and A. Tait. 1996. Trypanosomatid genetics, p. 6-34. In D. F. Smith and M. Parsons (ed.), Molecular biology of parasitic protozoa. IRL Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.","journal-title":"Molecular biology of parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_94_2","first-page":"203","volume":"37","year":"1980","unstructured":"Tanner, M. 1980. Studies on the mechanisms supporting the continuous growth of Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) brucei as bloodstream-like form in vitro. Acta Trop.37:203-220.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01773.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3273491"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1957.tb02519.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_98_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trager W. 1974. Nutrition and biosynthetic capabilities of flagellates: problems of in vitro cultivation and differentiation p. 225-254. In Ciba Foundation symposium 20: trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis with special reference to Chagas' disease. Elsevier Amsterdam The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470720035.ch12"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trager W. 1986. Living together. The biology of animal parasitism. Plenum Press New York N.Y.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-9465-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_100_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1982.tb01338.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_101_2","first-page":"270","volume":"1","year":"1977","unstructured":"Woo, P. T. K. 1977. Salivarian trypanosomes producing disease in livestock outside of sub-Saharan Africa, p. 270-296. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00531094"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_103_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00930828"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_104_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3274818"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_105_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.mi.48.100194.002313"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_106_2","first-page":"57","volume":"1","year":"1977","unstructured":"Zuckerman, A., and R. Lainson. 1977. Leishmania, p. 57-133. In J. P. Kreier (ed.), Parasitic protozoa,vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_107_2","first-page":"56","volume":"41","year":"1990","unstructured":"Zweygarth, E., and R. Kaminsky. 1990. Direct in vitro isolation of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and T. b. evansi from disease hosts with low parasitaemia. Trop. Med. Parasitol.41:56-58.","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"e_1_3_1_108_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-706X(89)90037-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_1_109_2","first-page":"95","volume":"48","year":"1991","unstructured":"Zweygarth, E., R. Kaminsky, and P. Webster. 1991. Trypanosoma brucei evansi: dyskinetoplasia and loss of infectivity after long-term in vitro cultivation. Acta Trop.48:95-99.","journal-title":"Acta Trop."}],"container-title":["Clinical Microbiology Reviews"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/CMR.15.3.374-389.2002","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/CMR.15.3.374-389.2002","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T10:18:29Z","timestamp":1645611509000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/10.1128\/CMR.15.3.374-389.2002"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2002,7]]},"references-count":108,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1128\/CMR.15.3.374-389.2002"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/cmr.15.3.374-389.2002","relation":{},"ISSN":["0893-8512","1098-6618"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0893-8512","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-6618","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2002,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2002-07-01","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}