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Epidemiological studies have revealed that chronic infection in humans is a risk factor for developing mental diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying parasite-induced neuronal dysfunction in the brain remain unclear. Here, we examined memory associated with conditioned fear in mice and found that\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">T. gondii<\/jats:named-content>\n            infection impairs consolidation of conditioned fear memory. To examine the brain pathology induced by\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">T. gondii<\/jats:named-content>\n            infection, we analyzed the parasite load and histopathological changes.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">T. gondii<\/jats:named-content>\n            infects all brain areas, yet the cortex exhibits more severe tissue damage than other regions. We measured neurotransmitter levels in the cortex and amygdala because these regions are involved in fear memory expression. The levels of dopamine metabolites but not those of dopamine were increased in the cortex of infected mice compared with those in the cortex of uninfected mice. In contrast, serotonin levels were decreased in the amygdala and norepinephrine levels were decreased in the cortex and amygdala of infected mice. The levels of cortical dopamine metabolites were associated with the time spent freezing in the fear-conditioning test. These results suggest that\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">T. gondii<\/jats:named-content>\n            infection affects fear memory through dysfunction of the cortex and amygdala. Our findings provide insight into the mechanisms underlying the neurological changes seen during\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">T. gondii<\/jats:named-content>\n            infection.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00217-16","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]],"date-time":"2016-07-26T02:28:50Z","timestamp":1469500130000},"page":"2861-2870","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Mice Impairs Long-Term Fear Memory Consolidation through Dysfunction of the Cortex and Amygdala"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"84","author":[{"given":"Fumiaki","family":"Ihara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maki","family":"Nishimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshikage","family":"Muroi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Motamed Elsayed","family":"Mahmoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naoaki","family":"Yokoyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kisaburo","family":"Nagamune","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshifumi","family":"Nishikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2009.04.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16412-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.073635"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.074716"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbs043"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2000.1182"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182008004666"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbl073"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0608310104"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2009.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0075246"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028925"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-011-2800-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00439-13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2014.09.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2013.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1985.11811902"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2012.10.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.12.051"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2014.03.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.12888"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023866"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","first-page":"1023","article-title":"Parasites as causative agents of human affective disorders? 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