{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T04:12:04Z","timestamp":1788408724219,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]],"date-time":"2024-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]],"date-time":"2024-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728950400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Infect Immun"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title\/>\n            <jats:p>\n              <jats:italic>Providencia alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              is a Gram-negative bacterium found in various water and land environments and organisms, including insects and mammals. Some\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              strains encode gene homologs of virulence factors found in pathogenic Enterobacterales members, such as\n              <jats:italic>Salmonella enterica<\/jats:italic>\n              serovar Typhimurium and\n              <jats:italic>Shigella flexneri<\/jats:italic>\n              . Whether these genes are pathogenic determinants in\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              is not known. In this study, we investigated\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              \u2013host interactions at the cellular level, focusing on the role of two type III secretion systems (T3SS) belonging to the Inv-Mxi\/Spa family. T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1b<\/jats:sub>\n              is widespread in\n              <jats:italic>Providencia<\/jats:italic>\n              spp. and encoded on the chromosome. A large plasmid that is present in a subset of\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              strains, primarily isolated from diarrheal patients, encodes for T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1a<\/jats:sub>\n              . We show that\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              205\/92 is internalized into eukaryotic cells, lyses its internalization vacuole, and proliferates in the cytosol. This triggers caspase-4-dependent inflammasome responses in gut epithelial cells. The requirement for the T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1a<\/jats:sub>\n              in entry, vacuole lysis, and cytosolic proliferation is host cell type-specific, playing a more prominent role in intestinal epithelial cells than in macrophages or insect cells. In a bovine ligated intestinal loop model,\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              colonizes the intestinal mucosa and induces mild epithelial damage with negligible fluid accumulation in a T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1a<\/jats:sub>\n              - and T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1b<\/jats:sub>\n              -independent manner. However, T3SS\n              <jats:sub>1b<\/jats:sub>\n              was required for the rapid killing of\n              <jats:italic>Drosophila melanogaster<\/jats:italic>\n              . We propose that the acquisition of two T3SS has allowed\n              <jats:italic>P. alcalifaciens<\/jats:italic>\n              to diversify its host range, from a highly virulent pathogen of insects to an opportunistic gastrointestinal pathogen of animals.\n            <\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00314-24","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,10]],"date-time":"2024-09-10T13:04:06Z","timestamp":1725973446000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Pathogenic diversification of the gut commensal\n            <i>Providencia alcalifaciens<\/i>\n            via acquisition of a second type III secretion system"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"92","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0529-9406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica A.","family":"Klein","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Paul G. 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