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Despite high rates of coinfection with these pathogens, investigations of host-parasite interactions have focused on each pathogen individually. We describe here a coinfection model in which female BALB\/c mice were first infected with the mouse\n                    <jats:italic>Chlamydia<\/jats:italic>\n                    species\n                    <jats:italic>C. muridarum<\/jats:italic>\n                    and then inoculated with\n                    <jats:italic>N. gonorrhoeae<\/jats:italic>\n                    following treatment with water-soluble 17\u03b2-estradiol to promote long-term gonococcal infection. Viable gonococci and chlamydiae were recovered for an average of 8 to 10 days, and diplococci and chlamydial inclusions were observed in lower genital tract tissue by immunohistochemical staining. Estradiol treatment reduced proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine levels in chlamydia-infected mice; however, coinfected mice had a higher percentage of vaginal neutrophils compared to mice infected with either pathogen alone. We detected no difference in pathogen-specific antibody levels due to coinfection. Interestingly, significantly more gonococci were recovered from coinfected mice compared to mice infected with\n                    <jats:italic>N. gonorrhoeae<\/jats:italic>\n                    alone. We found no evidence that\n                    <jats:italic>C. muridarum<\/jats:italic>\n                    increases gonococcal adherence to, or invasion of, immortalized murine epithelial cells. However, increased vaginal concentrations of inflammatory mediators macrophage inflammatory protein 2 and tumor necrosis factor alpha were detected in\n                    <jats:italic>C. muridarum<\/jats:italic>\n                    -infected mice prior to inoculation with\n                    <jats:italic>N. gonorrhoeae<\/jats:italic>\n                    concurrently with the downregulation of cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide and secretory leukocyte peptidase inhibitor genes. We conclude that female mice can be successfully infected with both\n                    <jats:italic>C. muridarum<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>N. gonorrhoeae<\/jats:italic>\n                    and that chlamydia-induced alterations in host innate responses may enhance gonococcal infection.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.01155-10","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,18]],"date-time":"2011-01-18T23:51:07Z","timestamp":1295394667000},"page":"1566-1577","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Chlamydial Infection Increases Gonococcal Colonization in a Novel Murine Coinfection Model"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"79","author":[{"given":"Rachel A.","family":"Vonck","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, F. 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